Theme 11 – Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement | CBSE History Notes

HISTORY | CLASS XII | NCERT

Book: Themes in Indian History – Part III | Chapter 11

Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement

Civil Disobedience and Beyond

⭐ Topper Level 💬 Easy Language 📌 Point-Wise 📜 Sources Included

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1. Learning Objectives

After reading these notes, you will be able to:

Trace Mahatma Gandhi’s rise as a national leader from South Africa (1915) to Independence (1947–48).

Understand the key movements Gandhi led — Non-cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Salt Satyagraha and Quit India.

Analyse how Gandhi transformed Indian nationalism from an elite movement into a mass movement.

Examine Gandhi’s appeal among peasants, workers and the poor — through symbols, dress and language.

Understand the Gandhi–Ambedkar debate on separate electorates for Depressed Classes.

Evaluate the different historical sources — speeches, letters, police reports, newspapers — used to study this period.

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2. Introduction

In the history of nationalism, a single individual is often identified with the making of a nation — Garibaldi with Italy, George Washington with America, Ho Chi Minh with Vietnam. Similarly, Mahatma Gandhi has been regarded as the ‘Father’ of the Indian nation. As the most influential and revered leader of the freedom struggle, Gandhi’s political career was shaped and constrained by the society in which he lived. Individuals, even great ones, are made by history even as they make history. This chapter analyses Gandhi’s activities during the crucial period 1915–1948, exploring his interactions with different sections of Indian society and the sources historians use to study his career.

🗺️ Key Themes of the Chapter

Gandhi and Indian Nationalism (1915–1948)

🧑‍🌾 Mass MovementsNon-cooperation, Salt March, Quit India

🤝 Hindu-Muslim UnityKhilafat, Congress-League

⚖️ Social ReformUntouchability, khadi, charkha

🧩 Political StrategySatyagraha, ahimsa, civil disobedience

📜 Historical SourcesLetters, police reports, newspapers

🗳️ Round Table ConferencesLondon 1930, 1931

🪧 Partition & AfterCommunal riots, last heroic days

🌿 Symbols of NationalismCharkha, dhoti, khadi

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3. A Leader Announces Himself (1915–1916)

✈️ 3.1 Return from South Africa

In January 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India after about two decades of residence abroad, mostly in South Africa.
South Africa was “the making of the Mahatma” (historian Chandran Devanesan) — it was there that Gandhi first:
- Forged the technique of non-violent protest known as satyagraha.
- Promoted harmony between religions.
- Alerted upper-caste Indians to their discriminatory treatment of low castes and women.
On the advice of his political mentor Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Gandhi spent a year travelling around British India to understand the land and its peoples.
The India Gandhi returned to in 1915 was more politically active — the Indian National Congress had branches in most major cities; the Swadeshi Movement (1905–07) had broadened its appeal among the middle classes.

💡 Political Scene in 1915

Two camps existed within the Congress: Militants (Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai — known as “Lal, Bal and Pal”) who advocated strong opposition to colonial rule; and Moderates (Gokhale, Jinnah) who preferred a gradual, persuasive approach.

🎓 3.2 The BHU Speech — February 1916

Gandhi’s first major public appearance was at the opening of Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916. He was relatively unknown compared to dignitaries like Annie Besant; he had been invited for his work in South Africa.
In his speech, Gandhi charged the Indian elite with a lack of concern for the labouring poor. He said: “Our salvation can only come through the farmer. Neither the lawyers, nor the doctors, nor the rich landlords are going to secure it.”
At the BHU opening, Gandhi reminded the privileged audience of millions of absent poor peasants and workers — the true majority of India.
The speech was both a statement of fact (Indian nationalism was an elite phenomenon) and a statement of intent — Gandhi’s first public announcement of his desire to make Indian nationalism truly representative of all people.
At the Lucknow Congress (December 1916), a peasant from Champaran in Bihar told Gandhi about the harsh treatment of peasants by British indigo planters — prompting Gandhi’s next major campaign.

📌 Early Localised Struggles (1917–1918)
Champaran (1917): Gandhi spent much of the year working for peasant security of tenure and freedom to cultivate the crops of their choice.
Ahmedabad (1918): Gandhi intervened in a labour dispute demanding better working conditions for textile mill workers.
Kheda (1918): Gandhi joined peasants asking for remission of taxes following harvest failure.


These three campaigns marked Gandhi out as a nationalist with deep sympathy for the poor, but they remained localised struggles.

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4. The Making and Unmaking of Non-cooperation (1919–1922)

📜 4.1 The Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh

During World War I (1914–18), the British had instituted censorship of the press and permitted detention without trial. After the war, on the recommendation of the Rowlatt Committee, these tough measures were continued.
In response, Gandhi called for a countrywide campaign against the Rowlatt Act (1919). Across North and West India, shops shut and schools closed in response to the bandh call.
Protests were particularly intense in the Punjab, where many men had served in the British war effort expecting rewards — instead they got the Rowlatt Act.
In April 1919, a British Brigadier ordered troops to fire on a nationalist meeting at Amritsar — the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, in which more than 400 people were killed.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha made Gandhi a truly national leader.

🤝 4.2 Non-cooperation and the Khilafat Movement

Emboldened by the success of the Rowlatt Satyagraha, Gandhi called for a campaign of “non-cooperation” with British rule. Indians were asked to stop attending schools, colleges, law courts, and not pay taxes — a “renunciation of all voluntary association with the British Government.”
Gandhi predicted India would win swaraj within a year if non-cooperation was effectively carried out.
To broaden the struggle, Gandhi joined hands with the Khilafat Movement — a movement of Indian Muslims led by Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali that sought to restore the Caliphate (abolished by Turkish ruler Kemal Attaturk), a symbol of Pan-Islamism.
Gandhi hoped that by coupling Non-cooperation with Khilafat, Hindus and Muslims could collectively bring an end to colonial rule.

📜 What was the Khilafat Movement?

Key Demands (1919–1920)

The Turkish Sultan or Khalifa must retain control over Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile Ottoman Empire; the jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Palestine) must remain under Muslim sovereignty; and the Khalifa must be left with sufficient territory to defend the Islamic faith. The Congress supported the movement and Gandhi sought to conjoin it to Non-cooperation.

⚡ 4.3 Knitting a Popular Movement

These movements unleashed a surge of popular action unprecedented in colonial India:
- Students stopped going to government schools and colleges.
- Lawyers refused to attend court.
- Working class went on strike — 396 strikes in 1921, involving 600,000 workers, with a loss of 7 million workdays.
- Hill tribes in northern Andhra violated forest laws.
- Farmers in Awadh did not pay taxes; peasants in Kumaun refused to carry loads for colonial officials.
Peasants, workers and others interpreted the call to “non-cooperate” in ways that best suited their own interests — sometimes in defiance of local nationalist leaders.
Louis Fischer (Gandhi’s American biographer) wrote: “Non-cooperation became the name of an epoch in the life of India and of Gandhiji. It was training for self-rule.”
As a consequence, the British Raj was shaken to its foundations for the first time since the Revolt of 1857.

🔥 4.4 Chauri Chaura and the Calling Off of the Movement

In February 1922, a group of peasants attacked and torched a police station in Chauri Chaura (United Provinces). Several constables perished in the fire.
This act of violence prompted Gandhi to call off the entire Non-cooperation Movement. He said: “No provocation can possibly justify the brutal murder of men who had been rendered defenceless.”
Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and charged with sedition. He was sentenced to six years’ imprisonment. Judge Broomfield praised him as a great patriot and a man of saintly life.

🌍 4.5 A People’s Leader

By 1922, Gandhi had transformed Indian nationalism — it was no longer a movement of professionals and intellectuals. Hundreds of thousands of peasants, workers and artisans now participated.
Many venerated Gandhi, calling him “Mahatma”. They appreciated that he dressed like them, lived like them, and spoke their language.
While other nationalist leaders dressed formally (Western suit or bandgala), Gandhi wore a simple dhoti or loincloth and spent part of each day on the charkha (spinning wheel).
The act of spinning allowed Gandhi to break the caste boundary between mental labour and manual labour.
The historian Shahid Amin traced Gandhi’s image among the peasants of eastern Uttar Pradesh — local newspapers recorded numerous rumours of his miraculous powers, healing powers, and ability to punish those who opposed him.
Gandhi appeared to the Indian peasant as a saviour — “Gandhi baba,” “Gandhi Maharaj,” “Mahatma” — who would rescue them from high taxes and oppressive officials.

📜 Source 1 — Gandhi’s View on the Charkha

Young India (1924 & 1927)

“What I object to, is the craze for machinery as such… I want to save time and labour, not for a fraction of mankind, but for all; I want the concentration of wealth, not in the hands of few, but in the hands of all.” (Young India, 13 November 1924)

“Khaddar does not seek to destroy all machinery but it does regulate its use… The wheel is itself an exquisite piece of machinery.” (Young India, 17 March 1927)

🏭 Business Support

Indian entrepreneurs like G.D. Birla supported the national movement openly or tacitly.
They recognized that in a free India, favours enjoyed by British competitors would end.
Gandhi thus had admirers among both poor peasants and rich industrialists — though for very different reasons.

🧑‍🤝‍🧑 Key Associates (1917–1922)

Mahadev Desai, Vallabh Bhai Patel, J.B. Kripalani
Subhas Chandra Bose, Abul Kalam Azad
Jawaharlal Nehru, Sarojini Naidu
Govind Ballabh Pant, C. Rajagopalachari
Came from different regions and religious traditions

📌 After Release — 1924 Onwards

Gandhi was released from prison in February 1924. He now devoted attention to: (1) promotion of home-spun cloth (khadi), (2) abolition of untouchability, (3) Hindu-Muslim harmony. For Gandhi, India had to get rid of social evils like child marriage and untouchability to be worthy of freedom.

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5. The Salt Satyagraha — A Case Study (1930)

🔄 5.1 Background — Re-entering Politics

After the Non-cooperation Movement ended, Gandhi focused on social reform work for several years.
In 1928, he began re-entering politics. That year saw an all-India campaign against the all-White Simon Commission sent from England to enquire into conditions in the colony.
In December 1929, the Congress held its annual session in Lahore — notable for two things: (1) election of Jawaharlal Nehru as President (passing the baton to the younger generation); (2) proclamation of commitment to “Purna Swaraj” (Complete Independence).
On 26 January 1930, “Independence Day” was observed across India with flag-hoisting and patriotic songs. Gandhi issued detailed instructions on how to observe the day.

🚶 5.2 The Dandi March

Gandhi announced he would lead a march to break the salt monopoly law — which gave the state a monopoly over the manufacture and sale of salt.
Why salt? In every Indian household, salt was indispensable. Yet people were forbidden from making salt even for domestic use, compelled to buy it from shops at high prices. The state monopoly was deeply unpopular.
On 12 March 1930, Gandhi began walking from his ashram at Sabarmati towards the ocean. He reached Dandi three weeks later, picked up a handful of natural salt, and thereby made himself a criminal in the eyes of the law.
Parallel salt marches were conducted in other parts of the country.
The British Viceroy Lord Irwin had been given advance notice of the Salt March — but failed to grasp its significance.
In the wake of the Salt March, nearly 60,000 Indians were arrested, including Gandhi himself.

📜 Source 3 — Gandhi at Dandi (5 April 1930)

“Tomorrow we shall break the salt tax law”

“That I have reached here is in no small measure due to the power of peace and non-violence: that power is universally felt… Tomorrow we shall break the salt tax law. Whether the Government will tolerate that is a different question… This movement is based on the faith that when a whole nation is roused and on the march no leader is necessary.” — CWMG, Vol. 49

📜 Source — Gandhi on Why Salt?

The Salt Monopoly — A Fourfold Curse

Gandhi wrote: “The salt monopoly is thus a fourfold curse. It deprives the people of a valuable easy village industry, involves wanton destruction of property that nature produces in abundance, the destruction itself means more national expenditure, and fourthly, to crown this folly, an unheard-of tax of more than 1,000 per cent is exacted from a starving people.” — CWMG, Vol. 49

🌟 5.3 Why the Salt March was Significant

1. World Attention

The Salt March was the first event that brought Gandhi to world attention. It was widely covered by the European and American press — the American magazine Time eventually praised him as a “Saint” and “Statesman.”

2. Women’s Participation

First nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers. Socialist activist Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay persuaded Gandhi not to restrict protests to men. Women courted arrest by breaking salt and liquor laws.

3. British Realisation

The Salt March forced upon the British the realisation that their Raj would not last forever and that they would have to devolve some power to the Indians.

🗣️ 5.4 Dialogues — Round Table Conferences

The British government convened a series of Round Table Conferences in London.
First Conference (November 1930) — held without Gandhi (he was in jail); rendered futile.
Gandhi was released from jail in January 1931. In February, he met the Viceroy — resulting in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact: civil disobedience would be called off, all prisoners released, and salt manufacture allowed along the coast. Radical nationalists criticised this as Gandhi could not obtain a commitment to political independence.
Second Round Table Conference (London, 1931) — Gandhi represented Congress. His claims to represent all of India were challenged by: (1) the Muslim League; (2) the Princes; and (3) B.R. Ambedkar (who argued Congress did not represent the lowest castes).
The Conference proved inconclusive. Gandhi returned to India and resumed civil disobedience.
In 1935, a new Government of India Act promised some form of representative government. In 1937 elections, Congress won a comprehensive victory — 8 out of 11 provinces had a Congress “Prime Minister.”

⚖️ Gandhi’s View — Separate Electorates

Gandhi opposed separate electorates for Depressed Classes, arguing it would perpetuate the stigma of untouchability.
He believed separate electorates would prevent integration into mainstream society.
“Separate electorates to the Untouchables will ensure them bondage in perpetuity.”

⚖️ Ambedkar’s View — Separate Electorates

Ambedkar argued the Depressed Classes needed political power to protect themselves against organised tyranny.
They were economically dependent on high-caste Hindus; religion branded them as “lepers.”
He said some share of political power was a “paramount necessity” for such a handicapped community.

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6. Quit India Movement (1942)

⚔️ 6.1 Context — World War II

In September 1939, the Second World War broke out. Gandhi and Nehru had both been strongly critical of Hitler and the Nazis. They promised Congress support to the war effort if the British promised India independence after the war.
The British refused. The Congress ministries resigned in October 1939. Through 1940–41, the Congress organised individual satyagrahas to pressure the rulers.
In March 1940, the Muslim League passed a resolution demanding autonomy for Muslim-majority areas — the political landscape became a three-way struggle between Congress, Muslim League, and the British.
In spring 1942, Churchill sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India to forge a compromise — talks broke down after Congress insisted the Viceroy first appoint an Indian as Defence Member of his Executive Council.

🔥 6.2 The Quit India Campaign

After the failure of the Cripps Mission, Gandhi launched his third major movement — “Quit India” in August 1942.
Although Gandhi was jailed immediately, younger activists organised strikes and acts of sabotage across the country. Particularly active: socialist members of Congress like Jayaprakash Narayan.
In several districts — Satara (west) and Medinipur (east) — “independent” governments were proclaimed. In Satara, a prati sarkar (parallel government) with seba dals and tufan dals functioned till 1946.
The British responded with much force — it took more than a year to suppress the rebellion.
“Quit India” was a genuinely mass movement — bringing in hundreds of thousands of ordinary Indians, especially energising the young who left their colleges to go to jail.

⚠️ Political Consequences

While Congress leaders languished in jail, Jinnah and the Muslim League worked patiently at expanding their influence — particularly in the Punjab and Sind, where the League had previously had scarcely any presence.

🤝 6.3 Road to Independence

In June 1944, Gandhi was released from prison. He held meetings with Jinnah to bridge the Congress-League gap.
In 1945, a Labour government came to power in Britain and committed to granting India independence.
In the 1946 elections, Congress swept the “General” category; the League won an overwhelming majority in Muslim-reserved seats. Political polarisation was complete.
A Cabinet Mission (summer 1946) failed to get Congress and the League to agree on a federal system. Jinnah called for “Direct Action Day” (16 August 1946) — bloody riots broke out in Calcutta, spreading across the country.
In February 1947, Lord Mountbatten replaced Wavell as Viceroy. When talks proved inconclusive, he announced British India would be freed — but also divided. Transfer of power was set for 15 August 1947.

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7. The Last Heroic Days (1947–1948)

😔 7.1 Independence Day — 15 August 1947

Gandhi was not present at the Independence celebrations in Delhi on 15 August 1947. He was in Calcutta — and did not attend any function or hoist a flag there either.
He marked the day with a 24-hour fast. The freedom he had struggled so long for had come at an unacceptable price — the nation divided and Hindus and Muslims at each other’s throats.
Through September–October 1947, Gandhi went round hospitals and refugee camps giving consolation to distressed people, appealing to Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims to forget the past and live in peace.

🙏 7.2 Finest Hour

Many scholars wrote of the months after Independence as being Gandhi’s “finest hour.”
At Gandhi’s initiative, the Congress passed a resolution on “the rights of minorities” — affirming that India would be “a democratic secular State where all citizens enjoy full rights… irrespective of the religion to which they belong.”
In Delhi, his prayer meetings were disrupted by refugees objecting to readings from the Koran — but Gandhi remained equally concerned with the sufferings of minorities in Pakistan as well.
There was an attempt on Gandhi’s life on 20 January 1948, but he carried on undaunted.

🕊️ 7.3 Assassination

At his daily prayer meeting on the evening of 30 January 1948, Gandhi was shot dead by a young man — Nathuram Godse.
Gandhi’s death led to an extraordinary outpouring of grief — tributes poured in from across the Indian political spectrum and from international figures like George Orwell and Albert Einstein.
Time magazine, which had once mocked Gandhi’s physical size, now compared his martyrdom to that of Abraham Lincoln — both killed by bigots for believing in human equality across race and faith.

🌏 Gandhi’s Last Hope

On 26 January 1948, Gandhi spoke of his hope that “though geographically and politically India is divided into two, at heart we shall ever be friends and brothers helping and respecting one another and be one for the outside world.”

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8. Knowing Gandhi — Historical Sources

There are many different kinds of sources from which historians reconstruct the political career of Gandhi and the history of the nationalist movement. Each type of source has its own value — and its own limitations.

🗣️ 8.1 Public Voice and Private Scripts

One important source is the writings and speeches of Gandhi and his contemporaries — both associates and political adversaries.
Speeches allow us to hear the public voice of an individual.
Private letters give a glimpse of private thoughts — anger, pain, anxiety, hopes, frustrations — expressed differently from public statements.
However, the private-public distinction often breaks down. Letters written to individuals are personal — yet they may be meant for the public. The awareness that letters may one day be published shapes their language.
Gandhi regularly published in his journal Harijan letters that others wrote to him. Nehru edited and published A Bunch of Old Letters — letters exchanged during the national movement.

📜 Source 7 — One Event Through Letters (1936)

Nehru–Prasad–Gandhi Exchange

In the 1930s, Nehru’s socialist leanings clashed with the conservatives (Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Patel) in the Congress. Gandhi mediated — restraining Nehru’s radicalism and persuading Prasad to withdraw the resignation. In his letter, Gandhi wrote to Nehru: “I suggested your name for the crown of thorns (Presidentship). Keep it on, though the head be bruised. Resume your humour at the committee meetings.” These letters reveal the inner workings of the Congress and Gandhi’s role as a mediator.

📖 8.2 Framing a Picture — Autobiographies

Autobiographies give an account of the past that is often rich in human detail. But they must be read carefully.
Autobiographies are retrospective accounts written from memory — they tell us what the author could recollect, what they saw as important, or how they wanted their life to be viewed.
Writing an autobiography is a way of framing a picture of yourself. So the historian must also try to see what the author does not tell us — the wilful or unwitting acts of forgetting.

👮 8.3 Through Police Eyes — Government Records

Government records are vital — the colonial rulers kept close tabs on those they regarded as critical. Letters and reports by policemen and officials were secret at the time, but can now be accessed in archives.
The Fortnightly Reports of the Home Department (from early 20th century) were based on police information — but often expressed what higher officials wanted to believe rather than what was actually happening.
These reports should not be accepted literally. They often reflect the fears and anxieties of officials — unable to control a movement, worried about its spread. They did not always accept what local police reported.

📜 Source 8 — Fortnightly Reports of the Home Department (Confidential)

Reports During the Salt March (March–April 1930)

The reports from various provinces showed the Home Department consistently downplayed the Salt March’s impact: Bengal — “little enthusiasm for the form of civil disobedience favoured by Gandhi”; Madras — “General opinion inclines to regard his march as theatrical and his programme as impracticable.” Yet by April 1930, the Salt Act was openly defied in Agra, Lucknow, Allahabad, Benaras and many other cities across United Provinces.

📰 8.4 From Newspapers

Contemporary newspapers — in English and Indian languages — tracked Gandhi’s movements, reported his activities, and represented what ordinary Indians thought of him.
However, newspaper accounts should not be seen as unprejudiced. They were published by people with their own political opinions and world views. A London newspaper would report differently from an Indian nationalist paper.
We need to look at these reports carefully — every statement cannot be accepted literally as representing what was happening on the ground.

💡 Comparing Sources — The Salt March Example
Police Reports: Downplayed public enthusiasm — described the march as “theatrical” and “impractical.” 
Time Magazine (American): First mocked Gandhi’s “spindly frame” and “spidery loins” — within a week changed tone after seeing the massive popular following, calling him a “Saint” and “Statesman.” 
Police Field Reports: The District Superintendent noted: “Mr Gandhi appeared calm and collected. He is gathering more strength as he proceeds.” 
Lesson: No single source tells the complete truth — historians must compare and cross-check multiple sources.

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9. Timeline — Key Events

Year	Event
1893	Gandhi goes to South Africa as a lawyer
January 1915	Gandhi returns to India from South Africa
February 1916	Gandhi’s first major public speech at the opening of Banaras Hindu University (BHU)
December 1916	Annual Congress session at Lucknow; Gandhi meets Champaran peasant
1917	Champaran Movement — Gandhi fights for peasant rights against indigo planters
1918	Labour dispute in Ahmedabad; peasant movement in Kheda (Gujarat) for tax remission
March–April 1919	Rowlatt Satyagraha — countrywide campaign against Rowlatt Act
April 1919	Jallianwala Bagh massacre — over 400 killed in Amritsar
1920–21	Non-cooperation Movement + Khilafat Movement; 396 strikes involving 6 lakh workers
February 1922	Chauri Chaura incident — Gandhi calls off Non-cooperation Movement
March 1922	Gandhi arrested; sentenced to 6 years’ imprisonment
February 1924	Gandhi released from prison; focuses on khadi and anti-untouchability work
1928	Peasant Satyagraha in Bardoli; all-India campaign against Simon Commission
December 1929	Lahore Congress — “Purna Swaraj” proclaimed; Nehru elected President
26 January 1930	Independence Day observed across India
12 March 1930	Gandhi begins the Dandi Salt March from Sabarmati Ashram
6 April 1930	Gandhi reaches Dandi, picks up salt — Civil Disobedience Movement begins
November 1930	First Round Table Conference in London — held without Gandhi
January 1931	Gandhi released from jail
March 1931	Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed
Late 1931	Second Round Table Conference, London — Gandhi attends; Ambedkar challenges Congress’s claim to represent all Indians
1935	Government of India Act promises representative government
1937	Congress wins elections; 8 of 11 provinces get Congress “Prime Ministers”
September 1939	World War II begins; Congress-Viceroy talks break down; Congress ministries resign (October)
March 1940	Muslim League passes resolution demanding autonomy for Muslim-majority areas
Spring 1942	Cripps Mission fails
August 1942	Quit India Movement begins; Gandhi jailed immediately; rebellion across the country
June 1944	Gandhi released from prison
1945	Labour government in Britain; commits to granting India independence
1946	Elections held — Congress wins general seats; League wins Muslim seats; Direct Action Day (16 Aug); communal riots across India
February 1947	Mountbatten replaces Wavell as Viceroy
15 August 1947	India gets independence (with Partition). Gandhi is in Calcutta, fasting
20 January 1948	First attempt on Gandhi’s life — he carries on undaunted
30 January 1948	Gandhi is shot dead by Nathuram Godse at his prayer meeting in Delhi

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10. Summary — Quick Revision

Gandhi returned from South Africa in January 1915. South Africa was “the making of the Mahatma” — he first developed satyagraha, religious harmony, and concern for caste/gender discrimination there.

Gandhi’s BHU Speech (1916) was a statement of fact (nationalism was elite) and a statement of intent — his desire to make nationalism representative of all Indians, especially peasants and workers.

Early campaigns — Champaran (1917), Ahmedabad (1918), Kheda (1918) — marked Gandhi as a nationalist with deep sympathy for the poor. But these were localised struggles.

The Rowlatt Act (1919) and Jallianwala Bagh massacre gave Gandhi a national platform. The Non-cooperation + Khilafat Movements (1920–22) brought unprecedented mass participation — 396 strikes, peasant revolts, student protests.

The Chauri Chaura incident (Feb 1922) — peasants torched a police station — prompted Gandhi to call off the entire Non-cooperation Movement. He insisted violence could not justify the cause.

Gandhi’s mass appeal rested on symbols: the dhoti, the charkha, and simple living. Peasants saw him as a saviour — “Gandhi baba,” “Gandhi Maharaj.” Historian Shahid Amin traced these rumours and beliefs in eastern UP.

The Salt March (12 March – 6 April 1930) was tactically brilliant — salt was universally needed but the state monopoly was universally hated. It brought Gandhi to world attention, energised women, and showed the British their empire’s fragility.

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) and the Second Round Table Conference saw clashes — with the League challenging Congress’s claim to speak for all Indians, and Ambedkar opposing Congress’s stand on separate electorates for Depressed Classes.

The Quit India Movement (August 1942) was Gandhi’s third major campaign — a genuine mass movement. Gandhi was jailed; younger leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan ran the underground resistance. Parallel governments emerged in Satara and Medinipur.

Gandhi did not celebrate Independence (15 Aug 1947) — he was in Calcutta, fasting, deeply pained by Partition. His last months were devoted to peace and minority protection. He was assassinated on 30 January 1948 by Nathuram Godse.

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11. Important Terms to Remember

Satyagraha: Literally “truth-force” or “soul-force.” Gandhi’s distinctive method of non-violent protest and civil resistance — first developed in South Africa. Based on the conviction that the pursuit of truth and justice required suffering without retaliation.
Ahimsa: Non-violence — the philosophical foundation of all of Gandhi’s political campaigns. Believers were expected to accept suffering without causing harm to their opponents.
Swaraj: Self-rule or independence. Gandhi used the term to mean both political independence from British rule and a deeper moral self-governance of Indian society.
Purna Swaraj: Complete independence. Proclaimed as the Congress goal at the Lahore Session (December 1929) under Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidentship.
Khilafat Movement (1919–20): A movement of Indian Muslims led by Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali demanding preservation of the Ottoman Caliphate. Gandhi linked Non-cooperation with Khilafat to forge Hindu-Muslim unity.
Non-cooperation Movement (1920–22): A campaign in which Indians were asked to withdraw voluntary cooperation with British rule — by not attending government schools, law courts, paying taxes. Called off by Gandhi after Chauri Chaura (Feb 1922).
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34): Began with the Salt March. Indians were asked to break specific unjust laws (salt laws, forest laws) as an act of public resistance to British rule.
Quit India Movement (1942): Gandhi’s third major campaign demanding the immediate end of British rule in India. Began in August 1942; Gandhi jailed at once; younger activists continued with strikes and sabotage.
Charkha: The spinning wheel — a symbol Gandhi chose to represent self-reliance, opposition to machine culture, and dignity of manual labour. The charkha became the most enduring image of Indian nationalism and appeared on the Congress flag.
Khadi: Hand-spun, hand-woven cloth. Gandhi promoted khadi as a symbol of self-reliance, economic freedom from British mills, and solidarity with the poor.
Rowlatt Act (1919): Legislation that continued wartime emergency measures — censorship of the press and detention without trial — in peacetime. Widely resented across India; Gandhi launched the Rowlatt Satyagraha against it.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 1919): British Brigadier-General Dyer ordered troops to fire on an unarmed nationalist meeting at Amritsar — over 400 killed. Transformed Indian public opinion against British rule.
Chauri Chaura (February 1922): A village in UP where a crowd of peasants attacked and set fire to a police station, killing several constables. Gandhi called off the Non-cooperation Movement in response.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931): An agreement between Gandhi and Viceroy Irwin: Civil Disobedience would be called off; all prisoners released; salt manufacture allowed along the coast. Congress agreed to attend the Second Round Table Conference.
Round Table Conferences: A series of conferences held in London (1930, 1931, 1932) to discuss India’s political future. The first (1930) was held without Gandhi; the second (1931) saw Gandhi attend but the talks proved inconclusive as Congress, Muslim League, and Princes clashed.
Depressed Classes / Untouchables: Social groups at the bottom of the Hindu caste hierarchy, subjected to severe discrimination. B.R. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for them; Gandhi opposed this, arguing it would perpetuate stigma.
Harijan: Gandhi’s term for “untouchables” — meaning “children of God.” He used it to emphasise their humanity and dignity. He also published a journal of this name.
Direct Action Day (16 August 1946): Called by Jinnah and the Muslim League to press the demand for Pakistan. Led to massive communal riots in Calcutta that spread across Bengal, Bihar, UP, and Punjab.
Praja Mandals: Organisations set up by Congress to promote the nationalist creed in the princely states — bringing nationalism beyond British India’s borders.
Shahid Amin: Historian who, in “Gandhi as Mahatma” (Subaltern Studies III), traced the image of Gandhi among the peasants of eastern UP through local newspaper reports and rumours circulating in 1921.