CHAPTER – 7
Nationalism
1. Chapter Overview
Nationalism is one of the most powerful political forces in the modern world. This chapter does not just ask why nationalism has arisen or what functions it serves — it asks us to think carefully about nationalism and assess its claims and aspirations. It explores how nations are formed, what binds people as a nation, the right to self-determination, and the relationship between nationalism and democracy.
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Understand the concepts of nation and nationalism2
Acknowledge the strengths and limitations of nationalism3
Appreciate the need for ensuring a link between democracy and nationalism2. Introducing Nationalism (Section 7.1)
When people hear the word “nationalism,” they think of patriotism, national flags, and sacrifice for the country. But it is difficult to arrive at a precise, widely accepted definition. Nationalism still deserves careful study because of the enormous role it plays in world affairs.
📌 The Power of Nationalism in History
- Over the last two centuries, nationalism has emerged as one of the most compelling political creeds — it has helped shape history across the globe.
- It has united people as well as divided them — liberated them from oppressive rule as well as caused conflict, bitterness, and wars.
- Nationalism has contributed to the drawing and redrawing of state boundaries — breaking up empires and building new nations.
- Today, most of the world is divided into nation-states, but the re-ordering of boundaries continues — separatist struggles within existing states remain common.
🗓️ Phases of Nationalism
- 19th century Europe: Nationalism led to the unification of small kingdoms into larger nation-states — Germany and Italy were formed through such consolidation.
- A large number of new states were also founded in Latin America. Local dialects and loyalties were consolidated into common state identities and languages.
- Nationalism also contributed to the break-up of large empires — the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires in Europe, and the British, French, Dutch, and Portuguese empires in Asia and Africa.
- India’s struggle for freedom from British colonial rule was a nationalist struggle — inspired by the desire to establish an independent nation-state.
- Since 1960: Even apparently stable nation-states have faced separatist demands — Quebecois in Canada, Basques in Spain, Kurds in Turkey and Iraq, and Tamils in Sri Lanka.
💡 The Core Questions Nationalism Raises
What is a nation? Why do people form nations? Why are people ready to sacrifice and die for their nation? Are claims to nationhood linked to claims to statehood? Do nations have a right to national self-determination? These are the questions explored in this chapter.3. Nations and Nationalism (Section 7.2)
A nation is not a casual collection of people — but it is also different from a family, a tribe, or a clan. As a member of a nation we may never meet most of our fellow nationals and need not share ties of descent with them. Yet nations exist, are lived in, and valued by their members.
❓ What Constitutes a Nation?
- It is commonly believed that nations are formed by people who share descent, language, religion, or ethnicity. But there is no single common set of characteristics present in all nations.
- Canada has both English-speaking and French-speaking peoples. India has a large number of languages spoken across regions and communities.
- Many nations also do not share a common religion — or a common race or descent.
- A nation is, to a great extent, an ‘imagined’ community — held together by the collective beliefs, aspirations, and imaginations of its members.
📌 The Four Key Elements That Constitute a Nation
1️⃣ Shared Beliefs
- A nation is constituted by belief. Nations are not like mountains or rivers — they do not exist independently of people’s beliefs about them.
- Speaking of a people as a nation refers to their collective identity and vision for an independent political future.
- Nations are like teams — a team exists only when its members conceive of themselves as a collective group.
- A nation exists when its members believe that they belong together.
2️⃣ History
- Nations perceive themselves as stretching back into the past as well as reaching into the future.
- They draw on collective memories, legends, and historical records to outline a continuing national identity.
- Indian nationalists invoked India’s ancient civilisation and cultural heritage to claim a long, continuous civilisational identity.
- Nehru wrote in The Discovery of India that despite outward diversity, there was a “tremendous impress of oneness” across the ages.
3️⃣ Territory
- Nations identify with a particular territory — living together on a land over a long period gives people a sense of collective identity.
- People who see themselves as a nation speak of a homeland — characterised as motherland, fatherland, or holy land.
- The Jewish people, even when dispersed worldwide, claimed Palestine as their ‘promised land.’ India identifies with the rivers, mountains, and regions of the subcontinent.
- Since more than one group can claim the same territory, this aspiration has been a major cause of conflict.
4️⃣ Shared Political Ideals
- What distinguishes groups from nations is a shared vision of the future and the collective aspiration for independent political existence.
- Members of a nation share a vision of the state they want to build — affirming values like democracy, secularism, and liberalism.
- In a democracy, shared commitment to political values is the most desirable basis of a nation-state.
- Recognition of the rights of fellow citizens creates obligations — and that recognition is the strongest test of loyalty to the nation.
⚠️ Why Political Rather Than Cultural Identity?
- Some people prefer a shared cultural identity (common language or religion) as the basis of nationhood — but this poses a threat to democratic values.
- Reason 1: All major religions are internally diverse — they contain many sects with different interpretations. Forcing a single religious identity creates an authoritarian and oppressive society.
- Reason 2: Most societies are culturally diverse. Imposing a single religious or linguistic identity would necessarily exclude some groups and restrict their liberty.
- Therefore, democracies should emphasise loyalty to constitutional values — not to a particular religion, race, or language.
4. National Self-Determination (Section 7.3)
Nations, unlike other social groups, seek the right to govern themselves and determine their future — this is the right to self-determination. A nation making this claim seeks recognition by the international community as a distinct political entity or state.
📖 How Self-Determination Has Played Out in History
- 19th century Europe: The notion of one culture – one state gained acceptance. This idea was used to redraw state boundaries after World War I through the Treaty of Versailles.
- The Treaty established many new independent states, but it was virtually impossible to satisfy all demands for self-determination.
- Reorganising boundaries to create culturally homogenous states led to mass migration — millions were displaced from their homes. Many became victims of communal violence.
- Even after all this, most newly created states still contained more than one ethnic and cultural community — so minority problems remained.
📖 Case Study: Demand for Self-Determination in Basque, Spain
The Basque Nationalist Movement
Basque is a hilly and prosperous region in Spain — recognised by the Spanish government as an ‘autonomous’ region. But Basque Nationalist leaders want full independence. They point to their own unique language (which does not resemble Spanish at all), geographical distinctiveness, and a history of self-governance since Roman times. The modern movement was triggered when, in the late 19th century, Spanish rulers tried to abolish Basque’s unique political-administrative arrangements. Under Franco, the Basque language was even banned in public places and homes. These restrictions have since been lifted, but Basque leaders remain suspicious of Madrid. Their opponents say the issue has already been resolved through autonomy. Do you think Basque nationalists are justified in demanding a separate nation?
🌏 Self-Determination in Asia and Africa
- The right to national self-determination was also asserted by national liberation movements in Asia and Africa against colonial domination.
- Nationalist movements argued that political independence would provide dignity, recognition, and protection of collective interests for colonised peoples.
- However, even here it proved almost impossible to ensure that each cultural group could achieve separate statehood — leading to migration, border wars, and violence.
- A paradox emerged: nation-states that themselves won independence through struggle began acting against minorities within their own territories who now claimed the right to self-determination.
💡 The Emerging Solution
- Virtually every state today faces the dilemma of how to deal with movements for self-determination.
- More and more people now recognise that the solution does not lie in creating new states but in making existing states more democratic and equal.
- The goal is to ensure that people with different cultural and ethnic identities live and co-exist as equal citizens within the country.
- The right to self-determination has been reinterpreted to mean granting certain democratic rights for a nationality within a state — not necessarily a separate state.
- A nation-state that does not respect the rights and cultural identity of its minorities will find it difficult to gain the loyalty of its members.
⚠️ The Problem With Granting Statehood to Every Group
It would be impossible — and probably undesirable — to grant independent statehood to every group that sees itself as a distinct cultural nation. It could lead to states too small to be economically and politically viable, and multiply problems of minorities still further.5. Nationalism and Pluralism (Section 7.4)
Once we abandon the idea of one-culture-one-state, it becomes necessary to consider how different cultures and communities can survive and flourish within a country. Many democracies today have introduced measures to recognise and protect minority cultural identities.
🏛️ Group Rights in Democratic Countries
- Democratic societies have introduced constitutional protection for the language, cultures, and religion of minority groups.
- In some countries, identified communities have the right to representation as a group in legislative bodies and other state institutions.
- Such rights are justified on the grounds of providing equal treatment, protection of the law, and protection for the cultural identity of the group.
- India’s Constitution has an elaborate set of provisions for the protection of religious, linguistic, and cultural minorities.
- National identity must be defined in an inclusive manner — recognising the unique contribution of all cultural communities within the state.
⚖️ The Challenge That Remains
- Even when groups receive recognition and protection, some may continue to demand separate statehood.
- This may seem paradoxical when globalisation is also spreading — but nationalist aspirations continue to motivate many groups and communities.
- The world is deeply conscious of the importance of giving recognition to identities. Many struggles employ the language of nationalism.
- While acknowledging identity claims, we must be careful not to allow them to lead to divisions and violence in society.
- Each person has many identities — based on gender, caste, religion, language, or region — and may be proud of all of them. When people can freely express all these dimensions, they may not feel the need to make exclusive claims on the state.
- In a democracy, the political identity of a citizen should encompass all the different identities that people may have. Intolerant and homogenising forms of nationalism are dangerous.
💡 Key Takeaway on Pluralism and Nationalism
Considerable generosity and skill is needed for countries to deal with demands for self-determination in a democratic manner. The answer lies not in separation, but in building inclusive, democratic, and equal societies where every identity is respected.6. Tagore’s Critique of Nationalism
Rabindranath Tagore offered one of the most important critiques of narrow nationalism from within the Indian independence movement itself. His views remind us that love of one’s nation must never override love for humanity.
✍️ Thinker: Rabindranath Tagore
Tagore’s Critique of Patriotism and Narrow Nationalism
“Patriotism cannot be our final spiritual shelter; my refuge is humanity. I will not buy glass for the price of diamonds, and I will never allow patriotism to triumph over humanity as long as I live.” — Rabindranath Tagore
📌 Key Points of Tagore’s Critique
- Tagore was against colonial rule and asserted India’s right to independence — but he was simultaneously critical of narrow nationalism.
- He felt that in British colonial administration there was no place for upholding the dignity of human relationships — a value otherwise cherished in British civilisation.
- Tagore made a distinction between opposing western imperialism and rejecting western civilisation — one is justified, the other is not.
- While Indians should be rooted in their own culture and heritage, they should not resist learning freely and profitably from abroad.
- He was critical of the narrow expressions of nationalism in parts of the independence movement — particularly the rejection of the West in favour of Indian traditions.
- He feared such a rejection could turn into hostility towards other influences from abroad — including Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and Islam — all of which have been present in India for centuries.
- A critique of what he called ‘patriotism’ is a persistent theme in his writings.
💡 Tagore’s Balanced Position
Tagore did not oppose India’s freedom struggle. He opposed the kind of narrow, exclusionary nationalism that pits one’s own nation against the rest of humanity. His ideal was a nationalism rooted in humanity — one that remained open to learning from the world while being proud of its own heritage.7. Mind Map — Chapter 7 at a Glance
🗺️ Mind Map — Chapter 7: Nationalism
Chapter 7 — Nationalism🌍 What is Nationalism?Political creed
Unites & divides
Shaped history
Unites & divides
Shaped history
🤝 What is a Nation?Imagined community
Beliefs · History
Territory · Ideals
Beliefs · History
Territory · Ideals
🏛️ Self-DeterminationOne culture–one state
Treaty of Versailles
Basque · Asia · Africa
Treaty of Versailles
Basque · Asia · Africa
🌐 PluralismGroup rights
India’s Constitution
Inclusive identity
India’s Constitution
Inclusive identity
⚖️ Limits of NationalismCannot grant statehood
to every group
Democracy is the answer
to every group
Democracy is the answer
✍️ Tagore’s CritiqueHumanity over patriotism
Oppose imperialism
Not western civilisation
Oppose imperialism
Not western civilisation
🏳️ Political IdentityConstitution-based
Not religion/race/language
Equal for all citizens
Not religion/race/language
Equal for all citizens
8. Summary — Quick Revision
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Nationalism is one of the most powerful political forces of the last two centuries. It has united people and divided them, liberated them from colonial rule, and also caused conflict, bitterness, and wars. It has led to the creation and break-up of states and empires.
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A nation is an ‘imagined community’ — held together by shared beliefs, a sense of common history, identification with a territory, and shared political ideals. There is no single common characteristic (language, religion, ethnicity) that defines all nations.
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The four key elements of nationhood are: Shared Beliefs (a nation exists when members believe they belong together), History (a sense of continuing civilisational identity), Territory (identification with a homeland), and Shared Political Ideals (a common vision for the state).
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Democracies should define national identity in political, not cultural terms. Loyalty to constitutional values — not to a particular religion, race, or language — is the desirable basis of a nation-state. Cultural identity can be oppressive and exclusionary.
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National self-determination is the right of nations to govern themselves. The 19th century ‘one culture–one state’ idea led to the Treaty of Versailles, mass migrations, and violence. In Asia and Africa, nationalist liberation movements achieved independence but still faced the same minority problems.
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The Basque movement in Spain illustrates the ongoing demand for self-determination. Basques argue their language, culture, and history are distinct from Spain. The Spanish government has granted autonomy but not independence. Similar demands exist in many parts of the world.
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Nationalism and Pluralism: Once the idea of one-culture-one-state is abandoned, democracies must protect minority group rights through constitutional provisions. India’s Constitution provides elaborate protections for religious, linguistic, and cultural minorities. National identity must be inclusive.
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Tagore’s critique — “Patriotism cannot be our final spiritual shelter; my refuge is humanity.” He opposed narrow nationalism in the independence movement, distinguishing between opposing imperialism and rejecting western civilisation. He feared nationalism could become hostile to India’s own diverse heritage of Islam, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism.
9. Important Terms to Remember
- Nationalism: A political creed or ideology that holds that people who share a common identity, history, and territory should constitute a distinct political community — usually a nation-state. It has been both a force for liberation and a source of conflict.
- Nation: An ‘imagined community’ — a large group of people who share collective beliefs, a sense of common history, identification with a territory, and a shared political vision. Unlike a family or tribe, members of a nation may never personally meet each other.
- Imagined Community: A term used to describe nations — communities held together not by face-to-face contact but by shared beliefs, aspirations, and imagination about belonging together.
- National Self-Determination: The right of nations to govern themselves and determine their future development. It often implies the right to independent statehood, but is now more commonly reinterpreted as the right to certain democratic protections within an existing state.
- One Culture – One State: The 19th century European idea that every culturally distinct group should have its own sovereign state. Applied after World War I through the Treaty of Versailles — but proved impossible to implement and led to mass migration and violence.
- Treaty of Versailles (1919): The peace treaty after World War I that reorganised European state boundaries based on the principle of national self-determination. Created several new small states but could not satisfy all demands and created new minority problems.
- Basque Nationalist Movement: A movement in the Basque region of northern Spain demanding separation from Spain, based on their distinct language, culture, geography, and history of autonomy. The Spanish government grants autonomy but not independence.
- Pluralism: The recognition and accommodation of multiple cultural, religious, and linguistic identities within a single state. Democratic states today try to protect the rights of cultural minorities through constitutional provisions and group rights.
- Group Rights: Rights granted not just to individuals but to identified cultural or minority communities — such as constitutional protection of their language, religion, or culture, and the right to group representation in legislatures.
- Tagore’s Critique of Nationalism: Rabindranath Tagore argued that narrow nationalism was dangerous — placing patriotism above humanity. He distinguished between opposing imperialism (justified) and rejecting western civilisation (unjustified). He feared exclusionary nationalism could turn against India’s own pluralist traditions.
- Nation-State: A modern political unit in which a sovereign state is inhabited predominantly by a people who share a common national identity. Most of the world today is organised into nation-states.
- Separatist Movements: Movements by regional or ethnic groups within an existing state that demand either more autonomy or complete independence and the creation of a new state. Examples include the Basques in Spain, Kurds in Turkey and Iraq, and Quebecois in Canada.
- Homeland: The territory with which a nation identifies and which it regards as its own — described variously as motherland, fatherland, or holy land. The aspiration for a homeland has been a major cause of conflicts worldwide.
- Democratic Citizenship and Nationalism: In a democracy, nationalist identity should be based on loyalty to constitutional values and equal treatment for all — not on ethnicity, religion, or language. This allows people of diverse backgrounds to share a common political identity.