History | Class XI | NCERT

Chapter 03

Nomadic Empires

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Chapter 3 – Nomadic Empires | CBSE Notes

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1. Learning Objectives

After reading these notes, you will be able to:

Explain who the Mongols were, where they lived, and what kind of life they led in the Central Asian steppes.

Describe the early life, rise to power, and major conquests of Genghis Khan.

Understand how Genghis Khan reorganised the Mongol army and created a new social order.

Explain how the Mongol Empire was divided among Genghis Khan’s sons and what each region was called.

Describe the legacy of the Mongol Empire — Pax Mongolica, Silk Route, and the Yasa.

Evaluate Genghis Khan’s place in world history — both as a destroyer and as a unifier.

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2. Introduction

The term ‘Nomadic Empires’ may seem contradictory — nomads are wanderers with simple social organisation, while ’empire’ suggests a fixed territory with complex administration. But this contradiction disappears when we study the Mongols of Central Asia, who built the largest empire the world had ever seen under the leadership of Genghis Khan in the 13th and 14th centuries. The Mongols were NOT isolated from the world — they traded, fought, and learnt from surrounding civilisations. Under Genghis Khan, they adapted their traditional steppe customs to create a fearsome military machine and a sophisticated system of governance, ruling over a vast mix of people, economies, and religions across Eurasia.

📚 Problem with Sources

Steppe dwellers produced little literature of their own. Most of what we know comes from city-based writers (Chinese, Persian, Arabic, Latin) who were often biased against nomads. The most important source on Genghis Khan is the Mongqol-un niuèa tobèa’an — “The Secret History of the Mongols.” Important modern scholars include Boris Vladimirtsov and Vasily Bartold.

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3. Social and Political Background of the Mongols

🌍 Who Were the Mongols?

The Mongols were a diverse body of people linked by language to the Tatars, Khitan, Manchus (east) and Turkic tribes (west). Some were pastoralists (herded horses, sheep, cattle, goats, camels); others were hunter-gatherers in Siberian forests.

🏔️ Geography of Mongolia

Location: Central Asian steppes — modern-day Mongolia. Surrounded by snow-capped Altai mountains (west), Gobi desert (south), and drained by Onon and Selenga rivers (north/west).
Climate: Extreme temperature — harsh, long winters followed by brief, dry summers. Agriculture was possible but Mongols did NOT take to farming.
Living: Mongols lived in tents called ‘gers’ and travelled with their herds between winter and summer pasture lands.
No Cities: Neither pastoral nor hunting-gathering economies could support dense populations — so the region had no cities.

👨‍👩‍👦 Social Structure

Patrilineal Lineages: Society was divided along family lines — richer families had more animals, pasture land, and followers, making them more powerful in local politics.
Periodic Calamities: Harsh winters or drought would force families to search farther for food, leading to conflicts over pasture lands and raids for livestock.
Short-lived Confederacies: Groups of families would ally around powerful lineages for defence or offence, but these were usually small and temporary. The only comparable confederacy before Genghis Khan was that of Attila the Hun (d. 453 CE).

🤝 Mongol-China Relations

Mutually beneficial trade: Agricultural produce and iron utensils from China were exchanged for horses, furs, and game from the steppe.
Tension and Conflict: Trade was sometimes replaced by plunder when Mongols were united and powerful. When Mongols were disunited, China asserted control over the steppe.
Great Wall of China: Built from the 3rd century BCE to protect against nomadic raids — a “dramatic visual testament” to the fear and disturbance caused by Mongol-type raids on agrarian China.

🏕️ Mind Map — Mongol Society

Mongol Society

🐎 Pastoralists
Horses, sheep,
goats, camels

🏹 Hunter-Gatherers
Siberian forests,
furs trade

⛺ Living in Gers
Tents, move between
winter/summer lands

⚔️ Tribal Conflicts
Over pasture land
& livestock

🏔️ Geography
Altai Mts, Gobi
Desert, no cities

🔄 Trade with China
Goods for iron tools
& agriculture

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4. The Career of Genghis Khan

👤 Early Life

Genghis Khan was born around 1162 near the Onon river in present-day Mongolia. Born Temujin, he was the son of Yesugei, chieftain of the Kiyat clan. His early life was full of hardship — his father was murdered, he was captured and enslaved, and his wife Borte was kidnapped. He fought back from all these setbacks.

🤺 Rise to Power

Alliance Building (1180s–90s): Temujin made key alliances — Boghurchu (first ally and trusted friend), Jamuqa (blood-brother, later turned enemy), and Tughril/Ong Khan (ruler of Kereyits, his father’s old ally).
Defeating Rivals: Used alliances to defeat powerful enemies including Jamuqa, the Tatars (his father’s assassins), the Kereyits, and Ong Khan himself (1203).
1206 — Proclamation as Genghis Khan: After defeating the Naiman people and Jamuqa, Temujin was proclaimed “Great Khan of the Mongols” (Qa’an) at an assembly of Mongol chieftains (quriltai) with the title Genghis Khan — meaning “Oceanic Khan” or “Universal Ruler”.

🗺️ Major Conquests

China (Three Realms): Hsi Hsia (north-west, Tibetan origin) defeated by 1209; Great Wall breached in 1213; Peking sacked in 1215. Battles against the Chin dynasty continued until 1234.
Transoxiana & Khwarazm (1219–1221): After Sultan Muhammad executed Mongol envoys, Genghis Khan launched a devastating campaign. Cities like Otrar, Bukhara, Samarqand, Balkh, Gurganj, Merv, Nishapur, and Herat fell. At Nishapur — where a Mongol prince was killed — he ordered the city be “laid waste so the site could be ploughed upon, and not even cats and dogs be left alive.”
Russian Steppes: Mongol forces pursued Sultan Muhammad’s son to Azerbaijan, defeated Russian forces at the Crimea, and encircled the Caspian Sea.
India Not Conquered: At the Indus river, Genghis Khan considered going through North India but turned back — due to the heat, natural habitat, and ill omens reported by his Shaman advisor.
Death in 1227 — after a lifetime of military campaigns that created the foundation of the largest empire the world had ever seen.

💀 Scale of Destruction

The casualties were staggering: Nishapur (1220) — 1,747,000 killed; Herat (1222) — 1,600,000; Baghdad (1258) — 800,000. Smaller towns like Nasa — 70,000 dead. However, historians note these figures from medieval chroniclers are greatly exaggerated — e.g., Juwaini counted 13 days × 100,000 corpses/day = 1.3 million for Merv.

🏇 Military Genius — How Did Mongols Win?

Horse-riding skills of Mongols and Turks provided speed and mobility.
Rapid-shooting archers on horseback — skills perfected in regular hunting expeditions that doubled as military field exercises.
Winter Campaigns: Treated frozen rivers as highways to enemy cities — unimaginable to settled armies.
Siege Warfare: Genghis Khan learnt siege engines and naphtha (fire) bombardment quickly. Engineers prepared light, portable equipment.
Steppe cavalry travelled light and moved fast — but could now handle fortified cities too.

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5. Social, Political and Military Organisation

📌 Key Principle

Genghis Khan deliberately destroyed old tribal identities and replaced them with a new system based on loyalty to himself, not to clan or tribe. This was the secret of his durable empire.

⚔️ Army Reorganisation

Decimal System: Army organised in units of 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 (tuman). In the old system, clan and tribe stayed together within units. Genghis Khan stopped this.
Mixed Units: He split old tribal groupings and put members from different tribes and clans into the same military units. Anyone moving from their allotted group without permission faced harsh punishment.
New Identity: The tuman (10,000-strong unit) now had fragmented people from many tribes — their new identity came from Genghis Khan, not their birth clan.
Commanders: Military units were placed under his four sons and specially chosen captains called noyan.

🤝 New Social Hierarchy

Anda (Blood-Brothers): Genghis Khan publicly honoured loyal followers as ‘blood-brothers’ — e.g., Boghurchu.
Naukar (Bondsmen): Freemen of humbler rank given the special title of bondsmen — marking their close relationship with the Great Khan.
New Aristocracy: Status in the new system came from closeness to the Great Khan, NOT from old clan chieftain rights.

🗺️ Division into Four Ulus (Territories)

Genghis Khan divided the conquered lands among his four sons. These were called ulus — originally NOT fixed territories but fluid domains.

👦 Jochi (Eldest)

Received the Russian steppes. His territory extended as far west as his horses could roam — indeterminate frontier. His descendants formed the Golden Horde.

👦 Chaghatai (2nd)

Given the Transoxianian steppe and lands north of the Pamir mountains. His successors ruled the steppes called Turkistan today.

👦 Ogodei (3rd)

Genghis Khan’s chosen successor as Great Khan. Established his capital at Karakorum. His lineage was later defeated and absorbed by the Toluyids.

👦 Toluy (Youngest)

Received the ancestral lands of Mongolia. His descendants eventually ruled both China (Yuan dynasty) and Iran (Il-Khanid dynasty) — the most powerful branch.

📬 The Yam — Courier System

Genghis Khan created a rapid courier system (yam) — fresh horses and riders placed at regularly spaced outposts. Mongol nomads contributed one-tenth of their herd (qubcur tax) to maintain it. The system was further improved after his death — its speed and reliability amazed travellers and let the Great Khan keep control over his vast empire.

🏛️ Quriltai — Assembly of Chieftains

The quriltai was an assembly of all Mongol chieftains where all major decisions were taken collectively — campaigns, distribution of plunder, pasture lands, and succession. It underlined the idea of a dominion shared by the whole family of Genghis Khan.

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6. The Mongols After Genghis Khan

📌 Two Phases of Expansion

After Genghis Khan’s death (1227), Mongol expansion continued in two phases: Phase 1 (1236–42) — Russian steppes, Bulghar, Kiev, Poland, Hungary. Phase 2 (1255–1300) — all of China (1279), Iran, Iraq, Syria.

⛔ Why Western Expansion Stopped

After the 1260s, the original momentum could NOT be sustained in the West.
Internal succession politics: Descendants of Jochi and Ogodei competed for the office of Great Khan — this mattered more than campaigns in Europe.
Toluyid branch took over: As Toluyids (descendants of Genghis Khan’s youngest son Toluy) gained power, resources were diverted to China. The Mongols fielded an understaffed force against Egypt — and were defeated.
Conflict on the Russian-Iranian frontier between Jochid and Toluyid lines diverted attention away from Europe.

🌏 Impact on Conquered Peoples

Cities destroyed, agricultural lands wasted, trade disrupted. Tens of thousands killed or enslaved — all classes suffered.
In Iran, the underground irrigation canals (qanats) fell into disrepair, the desert crept in — causing ecological devastation from which parts of Khurasan never recovered.

☮️ Pax Mongolica — The Mongol Peace

Once the campaigns settled, Europe and China were territorially linked for the first time.
Silk Route trade reached its peak under the Mongols — but unlike before, trade routes now extended north into Mongolia and to Karakorum, the heart of the empire.
Travellers were given a paiza (Persian) / gerege (Mongolian) — a safe conduct pass. Traders paid the baj tax and could travel safely across the empire.
The contradictions between nomadic and sedentary elements gradually eased. By the 1270s, Qubilai Khan appeared as a protector of peasants and cities, a major shift from earlier Mongol policy.

🔄 Shift from Nomadic to Sedentary Governance

Mongols recruited civil administrators from conquered societies — Chinese secretaries sent to Iran, Persian administrators to China. They helped blunt the harsher edges of nomadic rule.
In the 1230s, some Mongol leaders wanted to convert Chinese farmland to pasture — by the 1270s, Qubilai Khan protected the peasants.
Ghazan Khan’s speech (1295–1304): The first Il-Khanid ruler to convert to Islam, he told his commanders: “If you insult the peasantry, take their oxen… what will you do in the future?” — a remarkable turn towards sedentary thinking.

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7. The Yasa — Genghis Khan’s Code of Law

📌 What Was the Yasa?

The yasa was the code of law supposedly proclaimed by Genghis Khan at the quriltai of 1206. The earliest form — yasaq — meant simply “law, decree, or order.” By the mid-13th century it came to mean the “legal code of Genghis Khan” more broadly.

Original Content: The yasaq dealt with administrative regulations — organisation of the hunt, army, and postal system.
Why the Yasa Became Powerful: As Mongols ruled over diverse, sophisticated urban societies where they were a numerical minority, they needed a way to protect their unique identity. The yasa was their claim to a sacred law from their ancestor — comparable to Moses and Solomon as lawgivers.
The Yasa served to: (1) Unite Mongol people around shared beliefs; (2) Acknowledge loyalty to Genghis Khan’s descendants; (3) Give confidence to retain ethnic identity even while absorbing sedentary lifestyles.
Evolution over Centuries: In the late 16th century, ‘Abdullah Khan (a descendant of Jochi) went to pray at the same festival ground in Bukhara where Genghis Khan had once addressed the population. His chronicler Hafiz-i Tanish called this Muslim prayer “according to the yasa of Genghis Khan” — showing how the meaning of yasa had transformed from a military code to a general symbol of Genghis Khanid authority.

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8. Conclusion — Genghis Khan in World History

⚖️ Two Contrasting Views
To the defeated peoples of China, Iran, and Europe — Genghis Khan was a destroyer, the “wrath of God.” To the Mongols — he was the greatest leader of all time: he united them, freed them from tribal wars and Chinese exploitation, brought prosperity, and built a grand empire that restored trade routes attracting travellers like Marco Polo.

Multi-religious, Multi-ethnic Empire: Mongol Khans belonged to various faiths — Shaman, Buddhist, Christian, and eventually Islam — but never let personal beliefs dictate public policy. They recruited from all ethnic groups and religions. This was utterly unusual for the time.
Influence on Later Empires: Historians are studying how the Mongols provided ideological models for later regimes like the Mughals of India to follow.
Timur’s Legacy: At the end of the 14th century, Timur (another conqueror) hesitated to declare himself monarch because he was NOT of Genghis Khanid descent — eventually declaring sovereignty as the son-in-law (guregen) of the Genghis Khanid family.
Mongolia Today: After decades of Soviet control, Mongolia has adopted Genghis Khan as a great national hero — publicly venerated, mobilising memories of a great past to build national identity for the future.

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Summary — 12 Key Points

The Mongols were nomadic pastoralists and hunter-gatherers of Central Asia — linked by language to Tatars, Khitan, Manchus and Turkic tribes. They lived in gers (tents) with no cities.

Born Temujin (~1162), Genghis Khan overcame slavery, kidnapping of his wife, and tribal conflict to become the “Universal Ruler” of the Mongols at the quriltai of 1206.

Genghis Khan conquered China (breached Great Wall 1213), Central Asia (1219–21), the Russian steppes, and much more — creating the largest empire the world had ever seen.

His military success came from horse-riding speed, rapid archery, winter campaigns (frozen rivers as highways), and mastery of siege warfare.

Genghis Khan destroyed old tribal identities and reorganised his army into decimal units (10, 100, 1,000, tuman = 10,000) with mixed tribes — new identity came from loyalty to him.

He divided the empire among four sons: Jochi (Russia → Golden Horde), Chaghatai (Transoxiana), Ogodei (Great Khan, Karakorum), Toluy (Mongolia → Yuan & Il-Khanid dynasties).

The yam courier system connected the vast empire. Nomads paid the qubcur tax (1/10th of herd) to maintain it. Speed and reliability of the system amazed travellers.

After Genghis Khan, expansion continued in two phases. Western expansion stopped after the 1260s due to internal succession conflicts and diversion of resources to China.

Pax Mongolica — the Mongol Peace — linked Europe and China. Silk Route trade peaked under Mongols. Travellers carried paiza (safe-conduct passes) and paid the baj tax.

Over time, Mongols shifted from destroying peasants to protecting them. Civil administrators from conquered peoples (Chinese, Persian) helped govern. Ghazan Khan even told his commanders to stop pillaging peasants.

The yasa (Genghis Khan’s code of law) evolved from a simple administrative decree into a powerful symbol of Mongol identity — helping them unite their people and legitimise their rule over diverse subjects.

The Mongol Empire was a multi-ethnic, multilingual, multi-religious regime — unusual for its time. It provided ideological models for later empires like the Mughals of India. Today, Mongolia venerates Genghis Khan as its national hero.

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Important Terms to Remember

Ger: A Mongol tent — portable home of nomadic Mongols who moved with their herds.
Steppe: Large flat grassland of Central Asia — the homeland of the Mongols.
Quriltai: An assembly of Mongol chieftains where all major decisions (war, succession, distribution of plunder) were taken collectively.
Tuman: The largest unit of the Mongol army — approximately 10,000 soldiers from mixed tribes.
Noyan: Specially chosen captains/commanders of Genghis Khan’s army units.
Anda: Blood-brother — Genghis Khan publicly honoured loyal followers with this title (e.g., Boghurchu).
Naukar: Bondsmen — freemen of humbler rank given a special title marking close relationship with Genghis Khan.
Ulus: Originally a term for ‘people’ or ‘confederation’, later came to mean a territorial dominion — the four territories given to Genghis Khan’s sons.
Yam: The Mongol courier/postal system — fresh horses and riders at regularly spaced outposts across the empire.
Qubcur Tax: A tax paid by Mongol nomads (one-tenth of their herd) to maintain the yam courier system.
Pax Mongolica: ‘Mongol Peace’ — the period of relative stability and trade flourishing across Eurasia under Mongol rule after the conquests.
Paiza / Gerege: Safe-conduct pass (paiza in Persian, gerege in Mongolian) given to travellers and traders in the Mongol empire.
Yasa / Yasaq: The code of law of Genghis Khan — originally administrative regulations, later became a broad symbol of Genghis Khanid authority and Mongol identity.
Naphtha: An inflammable liquid used in fire-bombs during Mongol sieges — an early form of Greek fire.
Qanats: Underground irrigation canals in Iran that fell into disrepair during Mongol campaigns, causing ecological devastation.
Il-Khanid: The Mongol dynasty that ruled Iran, founded by Hulegu (Toluy’s son) after the capture of Baghdad in 1258.
Golden Horde: The Mongol state in the Russian steppes, ruled by descendants of Jochi (Genghis Khan’s eldest son).

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Key Timeline — Chapter 3

c. 1162

Birth of Temujin near the Onon river, present-day Mongolia

1160s–70s

Years spent in slavery and struggle — wife kidnapped, hardship

1180s–90s

Period of alliance formation — with Boghurchu, Jamuqa, Ong Khan

1203

Defeat of Kereyits and Ong Khan

1206

Temujin proclaimed Genghis Khan — “Universal Ruler” — at the quriltai

1209–1215

Hsi Hsia defeated; Great Wall breached (1213); Peking sacked (1215)

1219–1221

Conquest of Transoxiana & Khwarazm — Bukhara, Samarqand, Merv, Herat fall

1227

Death of Genghis Khan — empire passed to his four sons

1227–60

Rule of three Great Khans (Ogodei, Guyuk, Mongke) — continued Mongol unity

1236–42

Campaigns under Batu (Jochi’s son) — Russia, Hungary, Poland, Austria devastated

1258

Capture of Baghdad — end of Abbasid Caliphate; Il-Khanid state in Iran established under Hulegu

1260

Accession of Qubilai Khan as Grand Khan in Peking; fragmentation of Mongol realm begins

1279

All of China conquered under Qubilai Khan — Yuan dynasty established

1295–1304

Ghazan Khan (Il-Khanid Iran) — first to convert to Islam; protects peasants

1368

End of Yuan dynasty in China

1370–1405

Rule of Timur — declares sovereignty as son-in-law (guregen) of Genghis Khanid family

1495–1530

Babur (descendant of Timur & Genghis Khan) captures Kabul, then Delhi (1526) — founds Mughal Empire in India

1921

Republic of Mongolia established