Chapter 4 – Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings | CBSE History Notes

HISTORY | CLASS XII | NCERT

Book: Themes in Indian History – Part I | Chapter 4

Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings

Cultural Developments (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE)

⭐ Topper Level ☸️ Buddhism Focus 🏛️ Sanchi Stupa 📌 Point-Wise

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1. Learning Objectives

After reading these notes, you will be able to:

Understand the background of the sacrificial tradition and the emergence of new religious questions.

Explain the key teachings of Mahavira (Jainism) and Gautama Buddha (Buddhism).

Describe the structure, significance, and discovery of stupas, especially Sanchi.

Analyse symbols and sculptures at Sanchi and how historians interpret them.

Understand the development of Mahayana Buddhism, Puranic Hinduism, and early temples.

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2. Introduction — The World of Ideas

This chapter takes us on a 1,000-year journey (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE) through the world of philosophers, religious teachers and architects. We will see how thinkers’ ideas were expressed not only in texts but also in architecture and sculpture. The main focus is on Buddhism — though it developed alongside many other traditions including Jainism, Brahmanical religion, and various local practices.

Sources used: Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical texts; material remains including monuments and inscriptions.
Best-preserved monument: The stupa at Sanchi — a major focus of this chapter.
Sanchi is located near Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh). The site was preserved by the rulers of Bhopal — Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum — who funded its preservation, the museum there, and the publication of John Marshall’s important volumes on Sanchi.

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3. The Background: Sacrifices and Debates

The mid-first millennium BCE is a turning point in world history. It saw the rise of great thinkers across the world: Zarathustra (Iran), Kong Zi (China), Socrates/Plato/Aristotle (Greece), and Mahavira and the Buddha in India. All tried to understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship between humans and the cosmic order.

🕯️ The Sacrificial Tradition

The Rigveda (compiled c. 1500–1000 BCE) contains hymns in praise of deities like Agni, Indra and Soma. Many hymns were chanted when sacrifices were performed — people prayed for cattle, sons, good health, long life, etc.
Initially sacrifices were performed collectively.
Later (c. 1000 BCE – 500 BCE): Sacrifices performed by heads of households for well-being of the family.
More elaborate sacrifices like rajasuya and ashvamedha were performed by chiefs and kings, who depended on Brahmana priests to conduct the rituals.

❓ New Questions Arise — The Upanishads

The Upanishads (c. 6th century BCE onwards) reflect curiosity about the meaning of life, life after death, and rebirth. Was rebirth due to past actions (karma)? These questions were hotly debated.
Thinkers asked: What is the ultimate reality? Is there even a single ultimate reality? What is the significance of sacrifice?
People outside the Vedic tradition questioned whether the Vedas had any authority at all.

💬 Debates and Discussions

Buddhist texts mention as many as 64 sects or schools of thought. Teachers travelled from place to place to convince rivals and laypersons.
Debates took place in the kutagarashala (literally, a hut with a pointed roof) or in groves where mendicants halted.
If a philosopher convinced a rival, the rival’s followers also became his disciples — so support for any sect could grow and shrink over time.
Mahavira and the Buddha both questioned the authority of the Vedas and emphasised individual agency — men and women could strive to attain liberation through their own efforts. This contrasted sharply with the Brahmanical view where an individual’s existence was determined by birth in a specific caste or gender.

🌀 Ajivikas (Fatalists)

Led by Makkhali Gosala. Believed everything is predetermined — neither the wise nor the fool can change their destiny. Like a ball of string that unwinds to its full length, everyone takes their course and makes an end of sorrow. Texts of this tradition have not survived.

⚗️ Lokayatas (Materialists)

Led by Ajita Kesakambalin. Denied sacrifice, afterlife, and karma. A human being is made of four elements — when he dies they return to nature. No next world. “The talk of gifts is a doctrine of fools.” Texts have not survived.

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4. Jainism: The Message of Mahavira

The basic philosophy of the Jainas existed in north India before the birth of Vardhamana (Mahavira), who was born in the 6th century BCE. According to Jaina tradition, Mahavira was preceded by 23 other tirthankaras — literally, those who guide men and women across the river of existence.

Most important idea: The entire world is animated — even stones, rocks and water have life.
Ahimsa (non-injury) to all living beings — humans, animals, plants, insects — is central to Jaina philosophy. This principle has left a lasting mark on all of Indian thinking.
The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from karma.
Monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation — one must renounce the world.
Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: abstain from killing; abstain from stealing; abstain from lying; observe celibacy; abstain from possessing property.
Jainism spread to many parts of India. Jaina scholars produced literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil. Manuscripts were preserved in libraries attached to temples.
Some of the earliest stone sculptures associated with religious traditions were made by devotees of Jaina tirthankaras.

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5. The Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment

The Buddha is one of the most influential teachers of all time. His message spread from India to Central Asia → China, Korea, Japan → Sri Lanka → Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia. We know about his teachings from Buddhist texts and hagiographies (biographies of saints) written at least a century after his time.

🌟 Life of the Buddha

Born as Siddhartha, son of a chief of the Sakya clan. Had a sheltered upbringing inside the palace.
One day, he went into the city with his charioteer and was deeply shaken when he saw an old man, a sick man, and a corpse. He realised the inevitable decay of the human body.
He also saw a homeless mendicant who seemed to have found peace. Siddhartha decided to adopt the same path.
He tried bodily mortification (extreme penance) — which brought him near death. He abandoned this and chose the Middle Path.
After meditating for several days, he attained enlightenment and became the Buddha (Enlightened One). He then spent the rest of his life teaching dhamma (the path of righteous living).

📖 How Buddhist Texts Were Prepared

The Buddha taught orally. No speeches were written down during his lifetime.
After his death (c. 5th–4th century BCE), teachings were compiled by disciples at a council at Vesali (Vaishali, Bihar).
Compiled as the Tipitaka (literally, “three baskets”) — first transmitted orally, then written down.

📜 Vinaya Pitaka

Rules and regulations for members of the sangha (monastic order).

📖 Sutta Pitaka

Contains the Buddha’s teachings — stories, discourses and advice.

🔮 Abhidhamma Pitaka

Deals with philosophical matters — analysis of the nature of existence.

As Buddhism spread to Sri Lanka: texts like Dipavamsa (chronicle of the island) and Mahavamsa (great chronicle) were written.
Chinese pilgrims Fa Xian and Xuan Zang travelled to India in search of texts and took them back to China.
Oldest texts are in Pali; later compositions in Sanskrit. Modern translations prepared from Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan texts.

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6. Teachings of the Buddha

The Buddha tried to convince people through reason and persuasion rather than displays of supernatural power. His teachings were narrated in the language of ordinary people (not Sanskrit) so they could be easily understood.

🔑 Core Teachings

Three Key Concepts

Anicca (Transience): The world is constantly changing — nothing is permanent.
Anatta (Soullessness): There is nothing permanent or eternal in the world.
Dukkha (Sorrow): Sorrow is intrinsic to human existence.

The Path to Liberation

Follow the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence.
Emphasised individual agency and righteous action to escape the cycle of rebirth.
Goal: attain nibbana = extinguishing the ego and desire = end of suffering.
In earliest Buddhism, whether god existed was irrelevant.

The Buddha regarded the social world as a human creation, not divine. He advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.
His last words: “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.”
Buddhism drew people because it emphasised conduct and values over claims based on birth, and stressed metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion) especially for the weak.

👥 The Sangha — Followers of the Buddha

The Buddha founded a sangha — an organisation of monks who became teachers of dhamma.
Monks lived simply, possessed only essentials, received food once a day from the laity. Known as bhikkhus (those who lived on alms).
Initially only men were admitted. Later, women were admitted through the mediation of Ananda (the Buddha’s dearest disciple). The Buddha’s foster mother Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman ordained as a bhikkhuni.
Many women became teachers of dhamma and achieved the status of theris (respected women who attained liberation). Their verses are collected in the Therigatha.
Followers came from all social groups — kings, wealthy gahapatis, workers, slaves, craftspeople. All were considered equal within the sangha, shedding their earlier social identities.
The sangha’s internal functioning was based on democratic traditions: consensus through discussion; if that failed, decision by vote.

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7. Stupas: Sacred Monuments of Buddhism

From earliest times, people regarded certain places as sacred — sites with special trees, unique rocks, or awe-inspiring natural beauty. These were called chaityas. (Chaitya may also derive from chita = funeral pyre, and by extension a funerary mound.)

📍 Key Sacred Places Associated with the Buddha

Lumbini: Where the Buddha was born.
Bodh Gaya: Where he attained enlightenment.
Sarnath: Where he gave his first sermon.
Kusinagara: Where he attained nibbana (final liberation at death).
About 200 years after the Buddha, Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to mark his visit.

🔨 Why Were Stupas Built?

Stupas were built over sites where relics of the Buddha (bodily remains or objects he used) were buried.
The tradition of building stupas may be pre-Buddhist, but they became associated with Buddhism and venerated as emblems of both the Buddha and Buddhism itself.
According to the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s relics to every important town and ordered construction of stupas over them.
By the 2nd century BCE, stupas at Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath had been built.

💸 How Were Stupas Built? (Funding)

Inscriptions on railings and pillars record donations. Funded by:
Kings like the Satavahanas.
Guilds — e.g., the guild of ivory workers who financed part of a gateway at Sanchi.
Hundreds of donations by ordinary women and men — giving their names, hometown, occupation, and names of relatives.
Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed.

🏗️ Structure of the Stupa

Anda

The main dome — the semi-circular mound of earth (later elaborated). Represents the universe.

Harmika

Balcony-like structure above the anda. Represented the abode of the gods.

Yashti

A mast arising from the harmika, surmounted by a chhatri (umbrella).

Railing

Stone railing around the mound, separating the sacred from the secular.

Toranas (Gateways)

Four richly carved gateways at the four cardinal points. Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway.

Pradakshina

Worshippers walked clockwise around the mound, keeping it on the right — imitating the sun’s course through the sky.

📌 Sanchi vs Amaravati — Why Did Sanchi Survive?
Amaravati (Guntur, AP): Discovered in 1796. Sculptures removed by a local raja, then British official Walter Elliot (1854) collected sculpture panels (called “Elliot Marbles”). Slabs went to Asiatic Society of Bengal, India Office Madras, and even London. Now the mahachaitya is just an insignificant mound.

Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh): “Discovered” in 1818 — three of its four gateways still standing. Scholars like H.H. Cole argued for in situ preservation. The Begums of Bhopal (Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum) funded preservation. Plaster-cast copies were made for France and England, and the original remained. Declared a World Heritage Site in 1989.

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8. Sculpture at Sanchi

📖 Stories in Stone

Wandering storytellers carried scrolls (charanachitras) with pictures. Sculptures at Sanchi similarly tell visual stories.
Example: A sculpture that appears to show a rural scene with thatched huts and trees has been identified by art historians as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka — a story about a generous prince who gave everything to a Brahmana and lived in the forest. Historians compare sculpture with textual evidence to decode meaning.

🔣 Symbols of the Buddha

Many early sculptors did NOT show the Buddha in human form. Instead they used symbols to show his presence:

Key Buddhist Symbols

Empty seat: Indicates the meditation of the Buddha
Stupa: Represents mahaparinibbana (the final liberation)
Wheel (Dharmachakra): Stands for the first sermon at Sarnath (“setting the wheel of dharma in motion”)
Bodhi tree: Represents enlightenment
Footprints: Represent the presence of the Buddha

🌸 Popular (Non-Buddhist) Motifs

Shalabhanjika: Beautiful woman holding a tree — a woman whose touch caused trees to flower. Considered auspicious and integrated into Buddhist art.
Gajalakshmi: Woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants performing abhisheka (consecration). May represent Maya (Buddha’s mother) or the goddess of good fortune.
Animals: Elephants (strength and wisdom), horses, monkeys, cattle — drawn from Jataka stories and popular traditions.
Serpents: Derived from popular traditions not always recorded in texts.

📌 Key Insight — Integrating Popular Traditions

The shalabhanjika motif and similar images suggest that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas. The spread of Buddhism involved not just the transmission of the Buddha’s pure teachings but also this absorption and adaptation of local traditions. James Fergusson (an early European art historian unfamiliar with Buddhist texts) mistakenly concluded Sanchi was a centre of tree and serpent worship — a reminder that understanding requires knowledge of both texts and traditions together.

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9. New Religious Traditions

☸️ Development of Mahayana Buddhism

By the 1st century CE, changes in Buddhist ideas and practices became evident.
Early Buddhism emphasised self-effort in achieving nibbana; the Buddha was seen as a human who attained enlightenment on his own.
Gradually the idea of a saviour emerged — someone who could ensure salvation.
Simultaneously the concept of the Bodhisatta developed: deeply compassionate beings who accumulated merit but used it not to attain nibbana and abandon the world, but to help others.
The worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became central.
This new way of thinking was called Mahayana (“great vehicle”). Supporters called the older tradition Hinayana (“lesser vehicle”).
Followers of the older tradition described themselves as Theravadins — those who followed the path of old, respected teachers (theras).

📌 Gandhara Art — Greek Influence

Images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas modelled on Greek sculpture were found in the northwest (Taxila, Peshawar), where Indo-Greek rulers had established kingdoms (2nd century BCE). Early European scholars considered these the “best” examples of Indian art because they were closest to Greek styles — an example of judging the unfamiliar by using yardsticks from the familiar.

🌺 Growth of Puranic Hinduism

The idea of a saviour also developed within what we now call Hinduism:
Vaishnavism: Vishnu worshipped as the principal deity.
Shaivism: Shiva regarded as the chief god.
In both traditions, the bond between devotee and god was visualised as one of bhakti (love and devotion).
In Vaishnavism, 10 avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu were recognised — forms the deity assumed to save the world when threatened by disorder. Recognising local deities as forms of Vishnu was one way of creating a more unified religious tradition.
Shiva was symbolised by the linga, though occasionally represented in human form too.
Sculptures depicted complex attributes through symbols: headdresses, ornaments, ayudhas (weapons/auspicious objects held by deities), postures, etc.
Puranas (compiled c. middle of first millennium CE) contained stories about gods and goddesses — written in simple Sanskrit verse meant to be read aloud to everyone including women and Shudras.

⛩️ Building Temples

Around the same time as the stupas at Sanchi were being built, the first temples to house images of gods and goddesses were being constructed.
Early temple structure: A small square room called the garbhagriha (inner sanctum) with a single doorway. Gradually a tall structure called the shikhara was built over the central shrine. Temple walls were decorated with sculpture.
Later temples became elaborate with assembly halls, huge walls and gateways, and arrangements for supplying water.
Unique feature: Some early temples were hollowed out of rock (artificial caves). The earliest (3rd century BCE) were constructed on Asoka’s orders for the Ajivika sect.
This tradition culminated in the 8th century CE in the carving of the entire Kailashnatha Temple at Ellora (a name of Shiva) out of a single piece of rock. A copper plate inscription records the sculptor’s amazement: “Oh how did I make it!”

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10. Can We “See” Everything? — Interpreting Sculpture

Just because we can see something does not mean we automatically understand it. Interpreting ancient sculpture requires deep knowledge of textual traditions, cultural contexts, and the beliefs of those who created and venerated these images.

19th-century European scholars were often confused by Indian sculpture with multiple arms, multiple heads, or human-animal combinations. They compared Indian sculpture with Greek statues — which was unfair.
They considered Gandharan images (based on Greek models) the “best” Indian art — an example of using the familiar to judge the unfamiliar.
Example of interpretive challenge: The famous rock sculpture at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu) — art historians are divided: does it show the descent of river Ganga from heaven (from Puranas/epics), or Arjuna’s penance from the Mahabharata?
Many rituals and religious practices were never recorded in permanent form — no monuments, sculptures or paintings. Communities may have had vibrant religious traditions without feeling the need for lasting records. What we see is just the “tip of the iceberg.”

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11. Mind Map — Chapter at a Glance

🗺️ Mind Map — Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings

Cultural Developments (600 BCE – 600 CE)

🔥 BackgroundVedic sacrifices
Upanishads · 64 sects

🌿 JainismMahavira · Ahimsa
5 vows · Karma

☸️ BuddhismBuddha · Tipitaka
Sangha · Nibbana

🏛️ Sanchi StupaStructure · Donations
Discovery · Preservation

🗿 SculptureSymbols · Jatakas
Popular traditions

☸️ MahayanaBodhisatta · Saviour
Hinayana vs Theravada

⛩️ TemplesGarbhagriha · Shikhara
Vaishnavism · Shaivism

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12. Important Timelines

🕰️ Major Religious Developments

Date	Development
c. 1500–1000 BCE	Early Vedic traditions (Rigveda)
c. 1000–500 BCE	Later Vedic traditions; elaborate sacrifices; rajasuya, ashvamedha
c. 6th century BCE	Early Upanishads; rise of Jainism (Mahavira) and Buddhism (the Buddha)
c. 3rd century BCE	First stupas; Asoka distributes relics; stupas at Bharhut, Sanchi, Sarnath
c. 2nd century BCE onwards	Development of Mahayana Buddhism; Vaishnavism, Shaivism; goddess cults
c. 3rd century CE	Earliest temples (garbhagriha + shikhara)
c. 8th century CE	Kailashnatha Temple at Ellora — carved out of single rock

🏛️ Landmarks in Discovery and Preservation of Monuments

Date	Event
1796	Local raja discovers ruins of stupa at Amaravati
1814	Founding of the Indian Museum, Calcutta
1818	Sanchi “discovered” — three gateways still standing
1834	Cunningham explores the stupa at Sarnath
1835–1842	James Fergusson surveys major archaeological sites
1854	Walter Elliot visits Amaravati; Cunningham publishes Bhilsa Topes (on Sanchi)
1868–1901	Shahjehan Begum (Nawab of Bhopal) rules; funds preservation of Sanchi
1880	H.H. Cole appointed Curator of Ancient Monuments; advocates in situ preservation
1914	John Marshall and Alfred Foucher publish The Monuments of Sanchi
1923	John Marshall publishes the Conservation Manual
1989	Sanchi declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site

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Summary — Quick Revision

The mid-first millennium BCE was a turning point — great thinkers arose worldwide. In India: Mahavira and the Buddha. Both questioned Vedic authority and stressed individual agency over birth-based identity.

Jainism: World is animated; ahimsa is central; karma shapes rebirth; monastic existence is necessary for salvation; 5 vows. Mahavira had 23 predecessors (tirthankaras). Texts in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil.

Buddhism: World is transient (anicca), soulless (anatta), full of sorrow (dukkha). The Middle Path (between extreme penance and indulgence) leads to nibbana. Buddha = Enlightened One. Born as Siddhartha, Sakya clan.

Tipitaka = three baskets of Buddhist texts. Vinaya Pitaka (rules), Sutta Pitaka (teachings), Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy). Compiled after Buddha’s death at a council in Vesali (Vaishali).

The Sangha: organisation of bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunis (nuns). Mahapajapati Gotami = first woman ordained. All social groups equal within the sangha. Therigatha = verses by bhikkhunis.

Stupa = mound containing relics of the Buddha. Parts: anda, harmika, yashti, chhatri, railing, toranas. Worshippers walk clockwise (pradakshina). Sanchi and Bharhut had plain mounds with richly carved gateways.

Sanchi preserved by Begums of Bhopal. Amaravati destroyed — sculptures removed by British officials. H.H. Cole argued for in situ preservation. Sanchi = World Heritage Site (1989).

Buddhist sculpture used symbols (empty seat, wheel, stupa, Bodhi tree) not human form in early period. Also incorporated popular motifs: shalabhanjika, Gajalakshmi, animals, serpents — showing pre-Buddhist local traditions.

Mahayana Buddhism (from 1st century CE): idea of saviour; concept of Bodhisatta (compassionate beings who help others attain nibbana instead of themselves); image worship of Buddha and Bodhisattas.

Puranic Hinduism: Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva). Bhakti (devotion). 10 avatars of Vishnu. Shiva symbolised by linga. Early temples: garbhagriha + shikhara. Rock-cut caves → Kailashnatha Temple at Ellora (8th century).

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Important Terms to Remember

Rajasuya: A royal consecration sacrifice performed by kings, conducted by Brahmana priests.
Ashvamedha: Horse sacrifice — a major Vedic ritual performed by kings to assert sovereignty.
Upanishads: Sanskrit philosophical texts (c. 6th century BCE) discussing the nature of the self (atman), ultimate reality (Brahman), and the meaning of existence.
Kutagarashala: Literally “a hut with a pointed roof” — a place where debates and discussions among wandering teachers took place.
Hagiography: A biography of a saint or religious leader, often praising their achievements; may not always be literally accurate.
Tirthankara: Literally “those who guide men and women across the river of existence.” In Jainism, the 24 enlightened teachers including Mahavira.
Ahimsa: Non-injury to all living beings — a central principle of Jainism, also important in Buddhism and Hinduism.
Tipitaka: Literally “three baskets” — the three parts of the Buddhist canon: Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Sangha: The community of Buddhist monks and nuns; one of the “Three Jewels” of Buddhism (along with the Buddha and the Dhamma).
Bhikkhu: A Buddhist monk who lives on alms (charitable gifts of food). Female = bhikkhuni.
Theri: A respected senior Buddhist nun who has attained liberation. Their verses are collected in the Therigatha.
Nibbana (Nirvana): Literally the extinguishing of the ego and desire — the final liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. The ultimate goal in Buddhism.
Anicca: The Buddhist concept of impermanence/transience — nothing in the world is permanent.
Anatta: The Buddhist concept of “no-self” or soullessness — there is nothing permanent or eternal in the world.
Dukkha: The Buddhist concept of suffering or sorrow — intrinsic to human existence.
Metta: Fellow feeling — a key Buddhist virtue, especially towards the weak and young.
Karuna: Compassion — a key Buddhist virtue.
Chaitya: A sacred site or shrine; also used for Buddhist prayer halls. May be derived from chita (funeral pyre) — hence a funerary mound.
Stupa: A Sanskrit word meaning “a heap” — a hemispherical dome built over the relics of the Buddha or Buddhist saints. Emblem of Buddhism.
Anda: The main dome of a stupa — the semi-circular mound.
Harmika: The balcony-like structure above the anda, representing the abode of gods.
Yashti: The mast rising from the harmika, often surmounted by a chhatri (umbrella).
Torana: The ornate gateways of a stupa, installed at the four cardinal points and richly carved with stories and symbols.
Pradakshina: Ritual circumambulation — walking clockwise around a sacred object (mound, shrine or deity image), keeping it on the right.
In situ: On the spot — preserving an archaeological find where it was discovered, rather than removing it to a museum.
Bodhisatta (Bodhisattva): In Mahayana Buddhism, a compassionate being who postpones their own nibbana in order to help others attain liberation.
Mahayana: Literally “great vehicle” — the form of Buddhism that developed the idea of a saviour and Bodhisattas; image worship became central.
Hinayana / Theravada: Hinayana (“lesser vehicle”) was the name given by Mahayana followers to older Buddhism. Followers of the older tradition called themselves Theravadins — followers of old, respected teachers (theras).
Bhakti: Loving devotion to a personal god — the key bond between devotee and deity in Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Avatar: Incarnation of a deity. In Vaishnavism, Vishnu had 10 avatars who descended to save the world from disorder. Local deities were recognised as forms of Vishnu.
Linga: The aniconic symbol representing Shiva — the most common form of Shiva worship.
Garbhagriha: Literally “womb house” — the inner sanctum of a temple, a small square room where the deity image is housed.
Shikhara: The tall tower built over the garbhagriha in a Hindu temple.
Puranas: Sanskrit texts compiled c. middle of first millennium CE, containing stories of gods and goddesses. Written in simple Sanskrit verse, meant to be read aloud to everyone including women and Shudras.
Shalabhanjika: A sculptural motif of a woman whose touch causes trees to flower and bear fruit. Integrated into Buddhist stupa decoration as an auspicious symbol from popular/pre-Buddhist tradition.
Gajalakshmi: Goddess of good fortune, surrounded by lotuses and elephants performing abhisheka (consecration). Found on stupa sculpture — may also represent Maya, mother of the Buddha.
Jataka: Stories about the previous lives of the Buddha, in which he appeared as various humans and animals. Many are depicted in sculpture at Sanchi and in the Ajanta paintings.
Therigatha: A unique Buddhist text — part of the Sutta Pitaka — containing verses composed by bhikkhunis. Provides insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences.
Ashokavadana: A Buddhist text recording how Asoka distributed the Buddha’s relics and ordered the construction of stupas over them.