Chapter 7 – An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara | CBSE History Notes

HISTORY | CLASS XII | NCERT

Book: Themes in Indian History – Part II | Chapter 7

An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara

(c. Fourteenth to Sixteenth Century)

⭐ Topper Level 💬 Easy Language 📌 Point-Wise 🏛️ Architecture Included

🎯

1. Learning Objectives

After reading these notes, you will be able to:

Explain how the Vijayanagara Empire was founded, its political history and the four ruling dynasties, including Krishnadeva Raya’s significance.

Describe the amara-nayaka system — its structure, functions and how it differed from and resembled the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.

Understand the physical layout of Vijayanagara — the three major zones, water resources, fortifications and roads.

Analyse the architectural features of the royal centre and the sacred centre — temples, gopurams, mandapas, the Lotus Mahal and the mahanavami dibba.

Identify the various sources used to reconstruct the history of Vijayanagara — inscriptions, travellers’ accounts and archaeological surveys.

🏙️

2. Introduction

Vijayanagara — meaning “city of victory” — was the name of both a city and an empire. Founded in the fourteenth century, the empire at its peak stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula. In 1565, the city was sacked and deserted after the Battle of Talikota. Though it fell into ruin, it lived on in the memories of people in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab, who remembered it as Hampi — a name derived from the local mother goddess, Pampadevi. Oral traditions, combined with archaeological finds, monuments, inscriptions and other records, helped scholars to rediscover the Vijayanagara Empire. Contemporaries called the empire the karnataka samrajyamu.

🔍 Sources for Studying Vijayanagara

Colin Mackenzie (1800): An engineer, surveyor and cartographer — first brought the ruins at Hampi to light. Prepared the first survey map. Appointed first Surveyor General of India in 1815. Much of his initial information came from priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
Photographs (from 1856): Alexander Greenlaw took the first detailed photographs of archaeological remains at Hampi, enabling scholars to study them.
Inscriptions (from 1836): Epigraphists began collecting dozens of inscriptions found at Hampi and other temples. J.F. Fleet documented inscriptions from 1876.
Travellers’ accounts: Nicolo de Conti (Italian trader), Abdur Razzaq (Persian ambassador), Afanasii Nikitin (Russian merchant) — 15th century; Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes, Fernao Nuniz (Portuguese) — 16th century.
Literature: Written in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit.
Archaeological surveys (1980s onwards): Intensive surveys documenting thousands of structures, roads, bazaars. The site was declared of national importance in 1976 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.

👑

3. Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans — Political History

🏗️ Founding of the Empire

According to tradition and epigraphic evidence, two brothers Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 CE.
The empire included peoples who spoke different languages and followed different religious traditions.
The rulers called themselves rayas. They built on the temple-building traditions of earlier dynasties such as the Cholas (Tamil Nadu) and Hoysalas (Karnataka).
On their northern frontier, they competed with the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa for control of fertile river valleys and overseas trade resources.

📌 Three Powers — Elephants, Horses and Men

In the popular traditions of Vijayanagara: the Gajapati rulers of Orissa = “lord of elephants”; the Deccan Sultans = “ashvapati” (lord of horses); the Vijayanagara rayas = “narapati” (lord of men).

🏛️ Four Dynasties

Sangama Dynasty

Till 1485 CE

Founded by Harihara and Bukka. Built the Hiriya canal (Sangama dynasty). Controlled the empire for over a century.

Saluva Dynasty

1485–1503 CE

Saluvas were military commanders who supplanted the Sangamas and remained in power till 1503.

Tuluva Dynasty

1503–1542 CE

Krishnadeva Raya belonged to this dynasty. The peak of Vijayanagara power. Most famous rulers.

Aravidu Dynasty

1542 – late 17th c.

After Krishnadeva Raya’s successors faced rebellions. Ruled from Penukonda, then Chandragiri (near Tirupati) after 1565.

⭐ Krishnadeva Raya (ruled 1509–1529)

The most famous ruler of Vijayanagara. His rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.
1512: Acquired the Raichur doab (land between Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers).
1514: Subdued the rulers of Orissa.
1520: Inflicted severe defeats on the Sultan of Bijapur.
Credited with building fine temples and impressive gopurams in many south Indian temples.
Founded a suburban township called Nagalapuram after his mother.
Composed a work on statecraft in Telugu called Amuktamalyada — in which he wrote extensively about the importance of encouraging trade.
Most detailed descriptions of Vijayanagara come from his time or just after (Paes, Nuniz, Barbosa).

📜 Source 2 — Krishnadeva Raya on Trade (Amuktamalyada)

Kings and Traders

“A king should improve the harbours of his country and so encourage its commerce that horses, elephants, precious gems, sandalwood, pearls and other articles are freely imported… Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses be attached to yourself by providing them with daily audience, presents and allowing decent profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies.”

⚔️ The Battle of Talikota (1565) — Decline

After Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529, his successors were troubled by rebellious nayakas (military chiefs).
By 1542, control shifted to the Aravidu dynasty. Military ambitions of both Vijayanagara and the Deccan Sultanates led to shifting alliances.
In 1565, Rama Raya (the chief minister) led the army into battle at Rakshasi-Tangadi (also known as Talikota). His forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda.
The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city was totally abandoned within a few years.
It was Rama Raya’s adventurous policy of playing one Sultan against another that led the Sultans to combine and defeat him decisively.

📌 Relations Between Rayas and Sultans — Not Always Hostile

Despite religious differences, relations were not always hostile. Krishnadeva Raya supported claimants to power in the Sultanates and took pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom” (Yavana = Sanskrit word used for peoples from the north-west). The Sultan of Bijapur even intervened to resolve succession disputes in Vijayanagara after Krishnadeva Raya’s death. Both sides were keen to ensure each other’s stability — it was Rama Raya’s aggressive policy that broke this balance.

⚖️

4. Kings and Traders

Warfare depended on effective cavalry — so the import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was critical for rival kingdoms. This trade was initially controlled by Arab traders. Local merchant communities called kudirai chettis (horse merchants) also participated.
From 1498, the Portuguese arrived on the west coast of the subcontinent. Their superior military technology (especially muskets) made them important players in the politics of the period.
Vijayanagara was noted for its markets dealing in spices, textiles and precious stones. Trade was a status symbol — the city had a wealthy population demanding high-value exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery.
Revenue from trade contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state.

🗡️

5. The Amara-Nayaka System

The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. Many features of this system were likely derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate. “Amara” is believed to be derived from the Sanskrit word samara (battle or war) and also resembles the Persian term amir (a high noble).

The nayakas were military chiefs who usually controlled forts and had armed supporters. They often moved from one area to another (sometimes with peasants looking for fertile land). Most nayakas spoke Telugu or Kannada.
Amara-nayakas were military commanders given territories to govern by the raya. They collected taxes and dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in their area.
They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants — these contingents gave the Vijayanagara kings an effective fighting force.
Some revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works.
Amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared at the royal court with gifts to express loyalty.
Kings occasionally asserted control by transferring nayakas from one place to another.
During the seventeenth century, many nayakas established independent kingdoms — this hastened the collapse of the central imperial structure.

Amara-Nayaka System

Military commander given a territory by the raya
Collected taxes from the area
Retained part of revenue for personal use + military contingent
Paid tribute to the king annually
Derived from the Delhi Sultanate’s iqta system

Iqta System (Delhi Sultanate) — Comparison

An iqta was a grant of territory to a military officer
The officer collected revenue and paid the army
Transferred periodically to prevent entrenchment
Amara-nayaka system borrowed and adapted these features
Key difference: nayakas often became independent, hastening Vijayanagara’s decline

🗺️

6. Vijayanagara — The Capital and Its Environs

The capital Vijayanagara had a distinctive physical layout. Its location was defined by the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra flowing in a north-easterly direction, surrounded by stunning granite hills that formed a girdle around the city. The city was divided into three major zones: the Sacred Centre, the Urban Core, and the Royal Centre.

🕌

Sacred Centre

Rocky northern end on the banks of the Tungabhadra. Site of major temples — Virupaksha, Vitthala. Associated with Ramayana traditions. Centre of religious and cultural activities.

🏘️

Urban Core

Residential and commercial area. Rich traders’ quarters. Muslim quarter with mosques and tombs. Ordinary people’s thatched houses. Bazaars, shrines, wells and tanks.

👑

Royal Centre

South-western part. Over 60 temples + ~30 palace complexes. Mahanavami dibba, Lotus Mahal, Elephant Stables, Hazara Rama temple, Audience Hall.

📜 Source 3 — Domingo Paes (Portuguese traveller, 16th century)

A Sprawling City

“The size of this city I do not write here, because it cannot all be seen from any one spot, but I climbed a hill whence I could see a great part of it; I could not see it all because it lies between several ranges of hills. What I saw from thence seemed to me as large as Rome, and very beautiful to the sight; there are many groves of trees within it, in the gardens of the houses, and many conduits of water which flow into the midst of it, and in places there are lakes…”

💧 Water Resources

The city was located in one of the most arid zones of the peninsula — elaborate arrangements were necessary to store rainwater and conduct it to the city.
Embankments were built along streams flowing from the granite hills to create reservoirs of varying sizes.
Kamalapuram tank — the most important such tank, built in the early 15th century. Water irrigated nearby fields and was conducted through a channel to the royal centre.
Hiriya canal — one of the most prominent waterworks among the ruins. Drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra. Irrigated the cultivated valley between the sacred centre and the urban core. Built by kings of the Sangama dynasty.
Krishnadeva Raya constructed a large tank at the mouth of two hills, with pipes that brought water from a lake. According to Paes, 15,000–20,000 workers laboured on it, “looking like ants.”

🏰 Fortifications and Roads

Abdur Razzaq (15th-century Persian ambassador to Calicut) was greatly impressed — he mentioned seven lines of forts encircling not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests.
The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city. Massive masonry construction, slightly tapered. No mortar or cementing agent was used — stone blocks were wedge-shaped, holding each other in place. Inner portion was earth packed with rubble. Square or rectangular bastions projected outwards.
Most significant: the fortification enclosed agricultural tracts. Abdur Razzaq noted: between the first, second and third walls there were “cultivated fields, gardens and houses.” This was a deliberate strategy against medieval sieges — instead of building granaries, Vijayanagara protected the agricultural belt itself.
Three lines of fortification: (1) Outer wall — agricultural belt + forests; (2) Inner wall — urban complex; (3) Third wall — royal centre, with each major building complex having its own high walls.
Roads wound through valleys, avoiding rocky terrain. Important roads extended from temple gateways and were lined by bazaars.
Gateways showed Indo-Islamic architectural features — arches and domes introduced by Turkish Sultans, combined with local building practices.

🏘️ The Urban Core

Little archaeological evidence of houses of ordinary people — Barbosa described them as thatched houses, “arranged according to occupations, in long streets with many open places.”
Fine Chinese porcelain found in the north-eastern corner — suggesting these areas were occupied by rich traders.
This was also the Muslim residential quarter — tombs and mosques here have distinct functions but architecture resembles the mandapas of Hindu temples at Hampi.
Field surveys indicate the area was dotted with numerous shrines and small temples — evidence of a variety of cults supported by different communities.

🏯

7. The Royal Centre

The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement. Although called the royal centre, it included over 60 temples — patronage of temples was important for rulers seeking to legitimise authority through association with divinities. About 30 building complexes have been identified as palaces. These are large structures not associated with ritual functions. The superstructure of secular buildings was made of perishable materials, while temples were entirely of masonry.

🎭 The Mahanavami Dibba

Located on one of the highest points in the city — a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft.
There is evidence that it supported a wooden structure. The base is covered with relief carvings.
Rituals here coincided with Mahanavami (literally “great ninth day”) — the ten-day Hindu autumn festival known as Dusehra (north India), Durga Puja (Bengal), and Navaratri or Mahanavami (peninsular India).
On this occasion, the Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty. Ceremonies included: worship of the image and the state horse, sacrifice of buffaloes, dances, wrestling matches, processions of horses/elephants/chariots/soldiers, and ritual presentations by nayakas and subordinate kings.
On the last day: the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in an open field. Nayakas brought rich gifts and stipulated tribute.

📌 What Paes Called the “House of Victory”

Paes described the audience hall and mahanavami dibba together as the “House of Victory”: “These buildings have two platforms one above the other, beautifully sculpted… On the upper platform… in this House of Victory the king has a room made of cloth… where the idol has a shrine… and in the other in the middle is placed a dais on which stands a throne of state, (the crown and the royal anklet)…”

🏛️ Other Key Buildings in the Royal Centre

Lotus Mahal

One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre. Named by British travellers in the 19th century. Historians are not sure of its function — one suggestion (from a Mackenzie map) is that it was a council chamber. Features Indo-Islamic arches — probably inspired by Indo-Islamic techniques.

“Elephant Stables”

A large structure located near the Lotus Mahal. Named by later historians — may not have actually housed elephants. Shows a blend of domed roofs (Indo-Islamic) and other architectural features. One of the most visually impressive structures in the royal centre.

Hazara Rama Temple

One of the most spectacular temples in the royal centre. Probably meant for use only by the king and his family. Images in the central shrine are missing, but sculpted panels on the walls survive — including scenes from the Ramayana on the inner walls.

🕍

8. The Sacred Centre — Temples and Architecture

🏔️ Choosing the Sacred Capital

The rocky northern end of the city on the banks of the Tungabhadra was associated with several sacred traditions — local Ramayana traditions (monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva), the marriage of Pampadevi and Virupaksha, and Jaina temples of the pre-Vijayanagara period.
The very choice of Vijayanagara as capital was likely inspired by the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi.
Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha” in the Kannada script.
Rulers used the title “Hindu Suratrana” — a Sanskritisation of the Arabic term “Sultan,” literally meaning “Hindu Sultan.”
Temple building had a long tradition — going back to Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas. Rulers encouraged temple building as a means of associating themselves with the divine. Temples functioned as centres of learning and economic activity.
Royal portrait sculpture was displayed in temples. The king’s visits to temples were important state occasions accompanied by nayakas of the empire.

🏛️ Gopurams and Mandapas — New Architectural Features

Raya gopurams (royal gateways) — structures of immense scale that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines. Signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance. Probably meant as reminders of the power of kings.
Mandapas (pavilions) and long pillared corridors ran around shrines within the temple complex.
Halls in the temple were used for various purposes — images of gods placed to witness music/dance/drama; celebrating marriages of deities; deities swinging (special swing pavilions).
Chariot streets — extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line. Paved with stone slabs, lined with pillared pavilions where merchants set up their shops.

Virupaksha Temple

Built over centuries — earliest shrine dated to 9th–10th century CE
Substantially enlarged with the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire
Hall in front of the main shrine built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession — decorated with delicately carved pillars
He also constructed the eastern gopuram
The central shrine came to occupy a relatively small part of the complex after these additions
The marriage of Pampadevi and Virupaksha is celebrated here annually to this day

Vitthala Temple

Principal deity: Vitthala — a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra
Its introduction in Karnataka shows how rulers drew on different traditions to create an imperial culture
Has several halls and a unique shrine designed as a chariot (stone chariot)
Characteristic feature: chariot streets extending from the gopuram in a straight line
One of the most celebrated and visited structures at Hampi today

📌 Nayakas Continued the Building Traditions

Just as nayakas continued fortification traditions, they also continued temple-building traditions. Some of the most spectacular gopurams were built by local nayakas. Buildings at centres of nayaka power — Madurai, Ikkeri, Thanjavur, Chandragiri, Mysore — show this continuity. Many such buildings have survived even though the structures at Vijayanagara itself were destroyed when the city was sacked.

🛒

9. Bazaars — Markets of Vijayanagara

📜 Source 5 — Paes (Portuguese traveller)

The Bazaar

“Going forward, you have a broad and beautiful street… In this street live many merchants, and there you will find all sorts of rubies, and diamonds, and emeralds, and pearls, and seed-pearls, and cloths, and every other sort of thing there is on earth and that you may wish to buy. Then you have there every evening a fair where they sell many common horses and nags, and also many citrons, and limes, and oranges, and grapes, and every other kind of garden stuff, and wood; you have all in this street.”

Paes described Vijayanagara as “the best-provided city in the world” — markets stocked with rice, wheat, grains, pulses and horse-gram, all cheaply and abundantly available.
Fernao Nuniz described markets as “overflowing with abundance of fruits, grapes and oranges, limes, pomegranates, jackfruit and mangoes.”
Meat too was sold in abundance — Nuniz lists mutton, pork, venison, partridges, hares, doves, quail and all kinds of birds.
Bazaars located through archaeologists’ finds of pillar bases and platforms — all that remain of thriving markets.

🗺️

10. Plotting Palaces, Temples and Bazaars — Archaeological Surveys

After Mackenzie’s initial surveys, information was pieced together from travellers’ accounts and inscriptions.
Through the 20th century, the site was preserved by the Archaeological Survey of India and the Karnataka Department of Archaeology and Museums.
1976: Hampi recognised as a site of national importance.
Early 1980s: A major project was launched to document the material remains at Vijayanagara in detail — through extensive and intensive surveys. Over nearly twenty years, dozens of scholars from all over the world worked to compile and preserve information.
Mapping method: The entire area was divided into a set of 25 squares, each designated by a letter of the alphabet. Each small square was then subdivided into even smaller squares, and further subdivided into yet smaller units.
Surveys recovered and documented thousands of structures — from tiny shrines and residences to elaborate temples. Also found traces of roads, paths and bazaars.
1986: Hampi declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

📌 The Historian’s Challenge

As Fritz, Michell and Nagaraja Rao wrote: “In our study of these monuments of Vijayanagara we have to imagine a whole series of vanished wooden elements — columns, brackets, beams, ceilings, overhanging eaves, and towers — decorated with plaster and painted, perhaps brightly.” Although wooden structures are lost, only stone structures survive. The descriptions left by travellers allow us to reconstruct some aspects of the vibrant life of the times. Buildings tell us about defence requirements, cultural influences, and the ideas rulers wanted to project — but many questions about ordinary people, craftsmen and builders remain unanswered.

🧠

11. Mind Map — Chapter 7 at a Glance

🗺️ Mind Map — An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara

Chapter 7 — Vijayanagara

👑 Political HistoryFounded 1336
Harihara & Bukka
4 dynasties

⭐ Krishnadeva Raya1509–1529
Peak of power
Amuktamalyada

⚔️ Battle of Talikota1565 CE
Bijapur+Ahmadnagar+
Golconda vs. Vijayanagara

🗡️ Amara-NayakaMilitary governors
Collected taxes
Derived from iqta

💧 3 City ZonesSacred Centre
Urban Core
Royal Centre

🏛️ Royal CentreMahanavami dibba
Lotus Mahal
Hazara Rama temple

🕍 Sacred CentreVirupaksha temple
Vitthala temple
Gopurams

🔍 SourcesColin Mackenzie
Travellers’ accounts
Inscriptions

📅

12. Timelines

Timeline 1 — Major Political Developments

Period	Event
c. 1200–1300	Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (1206)
c. 1300–1400	Establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336?); Bahmani kingdom (1347); Sultanates in Jaunpur, Kashmir and Madura
c. 1400–1500	Gajapati kingdom of Orissa (1435); Sultanates of Gujarat and Malwa; Sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Berar (1490)
c. 1500–1600	Portuguese conquer Goa (1510); Collapse of Bahmani kingdom; Sultanate of Golconda (1518); Mughal Empire by Babur (1526); Battle of Talikota (1565)

Timeline 2 — Landmarks in Discovery and Conservation of Vijayanagara

Year	Landmark
1800	Colin Mackenzie visits Vijayanagara; prepares first survey map
1836	Epigraphists begin collecting inscriptions at Hampi
1856	Alexander Greenlaw takes first detailed photographs of archaeological remains at Hampi
1876	J.F. Fleet begins documenting inscriptions on temple walls at the site
1902	Conservation begins under John Marshall
1976	Hampi declared a site of national importance
1986	Hampi declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site

📋

13. Summary — Quick Revision

Vijayanagara = “city of victory.” Founded in 1336 CE by brothers Harihara and Bukka. At its peak it stretched from the river Krishna to the southern tip of the peninsula. Called karnataka samrajyamu by contemporaries.

Four dynasties: Sangama (till 1485) → Saluva (1485–1503) → Tuluva (1503–1542, Krishnadeva Raya’s dynasty) → Aravidu (1542 to late 17th century).

Krishnadeva Raya (1509–1529) — most famous ruler. Acquired Raichur doab (1512), subdued Orissa (1514), defeated Bijapur (1520). Built fine temples and gopurams. Authored Amuktamalyada (Telugu work on statecraft).

Battle of Talikota (1565): Rama Raya’s forces routed by combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The city was sacked and abandoned. Rama Raya’s policy of playing Sultans against each other backfired, uniting them against him.

The amara-nayaka system — military commanders given territories to govern; collected taxes; maintained military contingents; paid tribute annually. Derived from Delhi Sultanate’s iqta system. Nayakas’ independence in the 17th century hastened the empire’s collapse.

The capital had three zones: Sacred Centre (Virupaksha, Vitthala temples), Urban Core (traders, mosques, ordinary houses), Royal Centre (mahanavami dibba, Lotus Mahal, Hazara Rama temple). Located on the Tungabhadra river.

Water resources: Kamalapuram tank (early 15th century), Hiriya canal (Sangama dynasty) — elaborate arrangements in one of the peninsula’s most arid zones. The fortification uniquely enclosed agricultural tracts to resist sieges.

Mahanavami dibba: Massive platform (11,000 sq. ft base, 40 ft high) at highest point of the city. Used during the ten-day Mahanavami festival — displays of prestige, worship, processions, tributes from nayakas.

New temple architecture: raya gopurams (massive royal gateways dwarfing central shrines), mandapas (pavilions), chariot streets lined with merchant shops. Virupaksha and Vitthala are the two key temples in the sacred centre.

Sources: Colin Mackenzie (1800) first survey; photographs from 1856; inscriptions from 1836; travellers’ accounts (Paes, Nuniz, Barbosa, Abdur Razzaq etc.); 1980s intensive archaeological surveys; UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986.

📖

14. Important Terms to Remember

Vijayanagara: Literally “city of victory” — name of both the capital city and the empire. Founded in 1336 CE. Called karnataka samrajyamu by contemporaries. Known today as Hampi.
Hampi: The name by which the ruins of Vijayanagara are known today. Derived from Pampadevi, the local mother goddess. Located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab (Karnataka).
Raya: The title used by Vijayanagara rulers. They built on the temple traditions of earlier dynasties and took them to new heights.
Nayaka: Military chiefs who controlled forts, had armed supporters, and often moved from one area to another. Usually spoke Telugu or Kannada. Many submitted to the rayas but often rebelled.
Amara-nayaka system: The major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire — military commanders given territories to govern, collecting taxes and dues, maintaining military contingents, paying tribute annually to the king. Likely derived from the Delhi Sultanate’s iqta system.
Karnataka samrajyamu: The name used by contemporaries for the Vijayanagara Empire. Historians use “Vijayanagara Empire.”
Gajapati: Literally “lord of elephants” — the ruling lineage of Orissa in the 15th century, a rival power to Vijayanagara.
Kudirai chettis: Local horse merchant communities who participated in the Arabian and Central Asian horse trade vital for Vijayanagara’s military.
Kamalapuram tank: The most important water storage tank at Vijayanagara, built in the early 15th century. Water from it irrigated fields and was conducted to the royal centre.
Hiriya canal: A prominent waterworks at Vijayanagara — drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra. Apparently built by kings of the Sangama dynasty. Irrigated the valley between the sacred centre and the urban core.
Indo-Islamic architecture: A style that grew through the interaction of architectural techniques introduced by Turkish Sultans (arches, domes) with local building practices in different regions. Visible at Vijayanagara in the gateway arches, the Lotus Mahal and the mosque.
Mahanavami dibba: A massive platform (11,000 sq. ft base, 40 ft high) at one of the highest points of the royal centre. Used during the ten-day Mahanavami festival — occasion for processions, tributes from nayakas, worship, and displays of royal power.
Lotus Mahal: One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre, named by British travellers. Possibly used as a council chamber (suggested by a Mackenzie map). Features Indo-Islamic arches.
Hazara Rama Temple: A temple in the royal centre — likely used exclusively by the king and his family. Has sculpted panels depicting scenes from the Ramayana on the inner walls.
Raya gopuram: Royal gateways of Vijayanagara temples — structures of immense scale that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines. Signalled the presence of the temple from a great distance and proclaimed royal power.
Mandapa: Pavilion or hall within a temple complex. Used for various purposes — witnessing music/dance/drama, celebrating marriages of deities, swinging deities.
Chariot streets: Broad streets extending from temple gopurams in a straight line, paved with stone slabs and lined with pillared pavilions where merchants set up shops.
Vitthala temple: A major temple at Vijayanagara — the principal deity is Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra. Features a famous stone chariot shrine. Shows how Vijayanagara rulers drew on different regional traditions to create an imperial culture.
Virupaksha temple: The most important temple at Vijayanagara, located in the sacred centre. The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of god Virupaksha (a form of Shiva). All royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha.”
Hindu Suratrana: A title used by Vijayanagara rulers — a Sanskritisation of the Arabic term “Sultan,” literally meaning “Hindu Sultan.” Indicated close links with both Hindu traditions and the wider political vocabulary of the time.
Colin Mackenzie: An engineer, surveyor and cartographer who brought the ruins at Hampi to light in 1800. Prepared the first survey map of the site. Later became the first Surveyor General of India (1815).
Amuktamalyada: A work on statecraft in Telugu composed by Krishnadeva Raya. Includes his famous passages on the importance of trade and merchants for a kingdom.
Battle of Talikota (1565) / Rakshasi-Tangadi: The decisive battle in which Rama Raya’s forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The victorious armies sacked the city of Vijayanagara, which was then abandoned.