Chapter 6 – Bhakti-Sufi Traditions | CBSE History Notes

HISTORY | CLASS XII | NCERT

Book: Themes in Indian History – Part II | Chapter 6

Bhakti-Sufi Traditions

Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. Eighth to Eighteenth Century)

⭐ Topper Level 💬 Easy Language 📌 Point-Wise 🧠 Mind Maps Included

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1. Learning Objectives

After reading these notes, you will be able to:

Understand the mosaic of religious beliefs in India — the integration of cults, the role of “great” and “little” traditions, and tensions between different religious groups.

Describe the early Bhakti movements — the Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu, their poetry, attitude to caste, women devotees and relations with the state.

Explain the Virashaiva/Lingayat tradition in Karnataka and the religious ferment in North India.

Understand the growth of Sufism — khanqahs, silsilas, the Chishti order, and the relationship between sufis and the state.

Analyse the contributions of Kabir, Baba Guru Nanak and Mirabai — and the various sources historians use to reconstruct these traditions.

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2. Introduction

By the mid-first millennium CE, the Indian subcontinent was dotted with a variety of religious structures — stupas, monasteries, temples. From the eighth century onwards, a remarkable set of developments changed the religious landscape profoundly. New compositions by poet-saints expressed themselves orally in regional languages used by ordinary people, and were set to music. These were compiled by disciples, often after the death of the poet-saint. At the same time, Sufism — Islamic mysticism emphasising devotion and love for God — took deep root in the subcontinent. Together, these movements created a rich tradition of Bhakti-Sufi devotionalism that lasted for about a thousand years.

📚 Sources for This Chapter

Compositions of poet-saints: Expressed orally in regional languages; compiled by disciples after the saint’s death. These traditions were fluid — later generations elaborated, modified or sometimes abandoned original ideas.
Hagiographies: Biographies of saints written by their followers. May not be literally accurate, but reveal how devotees perceived the lives of these path-breaking women and men.
Sufi texts: Malfuzats (conversations), Maktubat (letters), Tazkiras (biographies), and treatises on sufi thought.
Sculpture and architecture: Temples, bronze sculptures, dargahs, mosques — all provide insights into religious beliefs and practices.

📌 Key Terms to Know from the Start
Saguna Bhakti: Devotion to a god with form/attributes (Shiva, Vishnu, Devi).
Nirguna Bhakti: Devotion to an abstract, formless god (Kabir, Baba Guru Nanak).
Hagiography: A biography of a saint or religious leader written reverentially by followers.
Silsila: A Sufi order/lineage — a chain linking master and disciple back to the Prophet.

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3. A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices

🔄 Two Processes at Work — Integration of Cults

The most striking feature of this phase was the increasing visibility of a wide range of gods and goddesses — Vishnu, Shiva and the Goddess, each visualised in a variety of forms.
Process 1 — Disseminating Brahmanical ideas: Composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant to be accessible to women and Shudras (who were excluded from Vedic learning).
Process 2 — Brahmanas incorporating local traditions: Brahmanas accepted and reworked the beliefs and practices of various social categories. This created a continuous dialogue between “great” Sanskritic Puranic traditions and “little” local traditions.
Example at Puri, Orissa: By the twelfth century, the principal deity was identified as Jagannatha (Lord of the World) — a local deity whose image was made of wood by tribal specialists, yet recognised as a form of Vishnu. This is a classic example of integration.
Goddess cults: Local deities (often just a stone smeared with ochre) were incorporated into the Puranic framework — equated with Lakshmi (wife of Vishnu) or Parvati (wife of Shiva).

📌 “Great” and “Little” Traditions

These terms were coined by sociologist Robert Redfield in the 20th century. Great tradition = rituals and customs emanating from dominant social categories (priests, rulers). Little tradition = local practices that did not always match the great tradition. Scholars accept the significance of these processes but are uncomfortable with the hierarchy implied by “great” and “little” — hence the use of quotation marks.

⚡ Difference and Conflict

Tantric practices were widespread — open to both women and men, ignoring caste differences in ritual contexts. Influenced Shaivism and Buddhism, especially in eastern, northern and southern India.
All these divergent traditions would eventually come to be classified as “Hindu” over the next millennium.
Biggest divergence: Vedic vs Puranic traditions — the principal Vedic deities (Agni, Indra, Soma) became marginal figures, while Vishnu, Shiva and the Goddess dominated the Puranas. Yet the Vedas continued to be revered as authoritative.
Those who valued the Vedic tradition condemned Tantric practices. Relations with Buddhism and Jainism were also often tense.

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4. Early Bhakti — The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu

Some of the earliest bhakti movements (c. sixth century CE) were led by the Alvars (literally, those “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu) and the Nayanars (literally, leaders who were devotees of Shiva). They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods, identifying certain shrines as abodes of their deities. Large temples were later built at these sacred places, which became centres of pilgrimage.

📖 Key Compilations

Nalayira Divyaprabandham (Alvar)

Anthology of compositions of the 12 Alvars
Compiled by the tenth century
Means “Four Thousand Sacred Compositions”
Described as the Tamil Veda — claiming equal importance to the four Sanskrit Vedas

Tevaram (Nayanar)

Poems of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar
Compiled and classified in the tenth century on the basis of the music of the songs
Chola ruler Parantaka I had metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar consecrated in a Shiva temple (~945 CE)

🧑‍🤝‍🧑 Attitudes Towards Caste

Some historians suggest the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system — or at least attempted to reform it.
Bhaktas came from diverse social backgrounds — from Brahmanas to artisans, cultivators and even those from castes considered “untouchable.”
Their compositions were claimed to be as important as the Vedas (the Tamil Veda claim) — a direct challenge to Brahmanical authority.

📜 Source 1 — Tondaradippodi (an Alvar, himself a Brahmana)

The Chaturvedin and the “Outcaste”

“You (Vishnu) manifestly like those ‘servants’ who express their love for your feet, though they may be born outcastes, more than the Chaturvedins who are strangers and without allegiance to your service.”

📜 Source 2 — Appar (a Nayanar saint)

Shastras or Devotion?

“O rogues who quote the law books, Of what use are your gotra and kula? Just bow to Marperu’s lord (Shiva) as your sole refuge.”

👩 Women Devotees

Andal — a woman Alvar whose compositions were widely sung and continue to be sung. She saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express love for the deity.
Karaikkal Ammaiyar — a woman devotee of Shiva who adopted extreme asceticism to attain her goal. Her compositions were preserved within the Nayanar tradition. She described herself as a pey (demoness) — a deliberate contrast to traditional notions of feminine beauty. These women renounced social obligations but did not join a religious order — their very existence challenged patriarchal norms.

👑 Relations with the State

Buddhism and Jainism had previously received royal patronage in Tamil Nadu. The Tamil bhakti hymns often showed opposition to Buddhism and Jainism — historians suggest this was due to competition for royal patronage.
The powerful Chola rulers (9th–13th centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing magnificent temples for Vishnu and Shiva — at Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram.
Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered by the Vellala peasants. Chola kings built splendid temples adorned with stone and metal sculpture to recreate the visions of these popular saints, thereby claiming divine support and legitimacy.

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5. Virashaiva Tradition and Religious Ferment in North India

🕉️ The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka

The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka led by Basavanna (1106–68), a Brahmana and minister in the court of a Kalachuri ruler.
His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).
They worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga. Men usually wear a small linga in a silver case on a loop strung over the left shoulder.
Those revered include the jangama (wandering monks).
Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore they do not practise funerary rites like cremation (prescribed in Dharmashastras). Instead, they ceremonially bury their dead.
They challenged the idea of caste and the notion of pollution attributed to certain groups. They also questioned the theory of rebirth — this won them followers among those marginalised in the Brahmanical social order.
They encouraged practices disapproved in Dharmashastras — such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
Understanding of the tradition comes from vachanas (literally, sayings) composed in Kannada by women and men who joined the movement.

📜 Source 4 — Basavanna’s Vachana

Rituals and the Real World

“When they see a serpent carved in stone they pour milk on it. If a real serpent comes they say: ‘Kill. Kill.’ To the servant of the god who could eat if served they say: ‘Go away! Go away!’ But to the image of the god which cannot eat they offer dishes of food.”

🌩️ Religious Ferment in North India

In north India, compositions like those of the Alvars and Nayanars are not found until the fourteenth century. This is partly because in north India, Rajput states had emerged where Brahmanas held positions of importance — there was little incentive to directly challenge their authority.
At the same time, other religious leaders operating outside the orthodox Brahmanical framework were gaining ground — the Naths, Jogis and Siddhas. Many came from artisanal groups including weavers. They questioned the authority of the Vedas and expressed themselves in the languages of ordinary people.
The coming of the Turks and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (13th century) undermined many Rajput states and the Brahmanas associated with them. This brought marked changes in culture and religion. The coming of the Sufis was a significant part of these developments.

📌 New Religious Developments of This Period

Two major developments: (1) Many ideas of Tamil bhaktas (especially Vaishnavas) were incorporated within the Sanskritic tradition, culminating in the composition of the Bhagavata Purana. (2) The development of bhakti traditions in Maharashtra in the thirteenth century.

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6. New Strands in the Fabric — Islamic Traditions

Arab merchants frequented ports along the western coast in the first millennium CE, while Central Asian people settled in north-western parts of the subcontinent. From the seventh century, with the advent of Islam, these regions became part of what is often termed the Islamic world. In 711, an Arab general named Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind. Later, the Turks and Afghans established the Delhi Sultanate (13th century), followed by Sultanates in the Deccan, and eventually the Mughal Empire (16th century).

🕌 Faiths of Rulers and Subjects

Theoretically, Muslim rulers were guided by the ulama (Islamic scholars), expected to rule according to the shari’a. But in the subcontinent, with its non-Muslim majority, this was complicated.
The category of zimmi (protected people — derived from Arabic zimma, protection) was developed for people who followed revealed scriptures (Jews, Christians) and lived under Muslim rule. They paid jizya and gained protection. In India, this status was extended to Hindus as well.
In practice, rulers often adopted flexible policies. Several Mughal rulers, including Akbar and Aurangzeb, gave land grants and tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish institutions, and expressed respect for non-Muslim religious leaders.

🌍 Popular Practice of Islam

The five pillars of Islam: (1) Shahada — belief in one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad as his messenger; (2) Namaz/Salat — prayers five times a day; (3) Zakat — giving alms; (4) Sawm — fasting during Ramzan; (5) Hajj — pilgrimage to Mecca.
These universal features were often overlaid with diversities from sectarian affiliations (Sunni, Shi’a) and local customary practices.
Khojahs (a branch of Ismailis, a Shi’a sect) developed new modes of communication — the ginan (from Sanskrit jnana, meaning knowledge), devotional poems in Punjabi, Sindhi, Hindi and Gujarati, sung in special ragas during prayer meetings.
Arab Muslim traders who settled along the Malabar coast (Kerala) adopted the local language Malayalam and local customs such as matriliny and matrilocal residence.
The architecture of mosques shows this blend — universal features (orientation towards Mecca, mihrab/prayer niche, minbar/pulpit) mixed with local variations in roof style and building materials.

🏷️ Names for Communities

Between the 8th and 14th centuries, the term musalman or Muslim was virtually never used in Sanskrit texts and inscriptions. Instead, people were identified by region of origin.
Turkish rulers were called Turushka, people from Tajikistan called Tajika, people from Persia called Parashika. The Turks and Afghans were sometimes referred to as Shakas and Yavanas.
A general term for migrant communities was mlechchha — indicating they did not observe caste norms and spoke non-Sanskrit languages. Such terms rarely denoted a distinct religious community of Muslims in opposition to Hindus.

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7. The Growth of Sufism

In the early centuries of Islam, a group of religious-minded people called sufis turned to asceticism and mysticism in protest against the growing materialism of the Caliphate. They were critical of dogmatic and scholastic methods of interpreting the Qur’an. Instead, they emphasised seeking salvation through intense devotion and love for God, following His commands and the example of the Prophet Muhammad, whom they regarded as a perfect human being.

📌 What Does “Sufi” / “Tasawwuf” Mean?

“Sufism” is an English word coined in the 19th century. The Arabic/Islamic term is tasawwuf. Possible derivations: (1) from suf (wool) — the coarse woollen garments sufis wore; (2) from safa (purity); (3) from suffa — the platform outside the Prophet’s mosque where close followers assembled.

🏠 Khanqahs and Silsilas

By the eleventh century, Sufism evolved into a well-developed movement with a body of literature on Quranic studies and sufi practices.
Sufis organised communities around a hospice or khanqah (Persian), controlled by a teaching master known as shaikh (Arabic), pir or murshid (Persian).
The shaikh enrolled disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (khalifa). He established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction.
Silsila (literally, “chain”) — a spiritual lineage linking master and disciple in an unbroken chain stretching back to the Prophet Muhammad. Spiritual power and blessings were transmitted through this chain. Most silsilas were named after a founding figure (e.g., Qadiri order after Shaikh Abd’ul Qadir Jilani) — though the Chishti order was named after the town of Chisht in central Afghanistan.
Special initiation rituals: initiates took an oath of allegiance, wore a patched garment, and shaved their hair.
When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah) became the centre of devotion. Pilgrimage to his grave, especially on his death anniversary (urs — “marriage”, signifying the union of his soul with God), became important. People believed saints were closer to God in death than in life. This led to the cult of the shaikh revered as wali (friend of God).

🌿 Outside the Khanqah

Some mystics initiated movements based on radical interpretations of sufi ideals — scorning the khanqah, taking to mendicancy, observing celibacy, ignoring rituals and extreme asceticism.
Known as Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris etc.
Because of their deliberate defiance of the shari’a, they were called be-shari’a (without shari’a), in contrast to the ba-shari’a sufis who complied with it.

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8. The Chishtis in the Subcontinent

Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, the Chishtis were the most influential. This was because they adapted successfully to the local environment and adopted several features of Indian devotional traditions.

📋 Major Teachers of the Chishti Silsila

Sufi Teacher	Year of Death	Location of Dargah
Shaikh Muinuddin Sijzi (“Gharib Nawaz”)	1235 CE	Ajmer, Rajasthan
Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki	1235 CE	Delhi
Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i Shakar (Baba Farid)	1265 CE	Ajodhan, Pakistan
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya	1325 CE	Delhi
Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i Dehli	1356 CE	Delhi

🏠 Life in the Chishti Khanqah

The khanqah was the centre of social life. Example: Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice (c. 14th century) on the banks of the Yamuna in Ghiyaspur, on the outskirts of Delhi.
The complex comprised small rooms and a big hall (jama’at khana) where inmates and visitors lived and prayed. Inmates included the Shaikh’s family, attendants and disciples.
An open kitchen (langar) ran on futuh (unasked-for charity). People from all walks of life came — soldiers, slaves, singers, merchants, poets, travellers, rich and poor, Hindu jogis and qalandars — seeking discipleship, healing amulets and the Shaikh’s intercession.
Famous visitors included poets Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau, and court historian Ziyauddin Barani.
Practices adopted from local traditions: bowing before the Shaikh, offering water to visitors, shaving heads of initiates, yogic exercises.
Shaikh Nizamuddin appointed several spiritual successors (khalifas) and sent them to set up hospices across the subcontinent — spreading the Chishti network rapidly.

🎵 Ziyarat and Qawwali

Ziyarat (pilgrimage to tombs of sufi saints) — prevalent across the Muslim world. An occasion for seeking the sufi’s spiritual grace (barakat).
Most revered Chishti shrine: Khwaja Muinuddin’s dargah at Ajmer — popularly known as “Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor). Akbar visited it fourteen times, sometimes 2–3 times a year, to seek blessings for new conquests. He offered a huge cauldron (degh) in 1568 and had a mosque constructed within the dargah compound.
Also part of ziyarat: sama’ (literally, “audition”) — performance of mystical music to evoke divine ecstasy. Sufis remembered God through zikr (reciting the Divine Names) or sama’.
Qawwali — devotional music at shrines. Amir Khusrau (1253–1325) gave a unique form to Chishti sama’ by introducing the qaul (Arabic for “saying”) — a hymn sung at the opening or closing of qawwali. Today qawwali is performed in shrines all over the subcontinent.

🗣️ Languages and Communication

Chishtis associated with Delhi conversed in Hindavi, the language of the people.
Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were later incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.
Others composed long poems or masnavis to express divine love using human love as allegory. Example: Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi — the romance of Padmini and Ratansen (king of Chittor) was symbolic of the soul’s journey to the divine.
Around Bijapur, Karnataka: short poems in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu) attributed to Chishti sufis — likely sung by women while performing household chores (grinding grain, spinning). Other compositions: lurinama (lullabies) and shadinama (wedding songs). These sufis were inspired by the Lingayat vachanas and Marathi abhangs of the sants of Pandharpur. This is how Islam gradually gained a place in the villages of the Deccan.

👑 Sufis and the State

A major feature of the Chishti tradition was austerity and maintaining a distance from worldly power. However, this was not absolute isolation.
Sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from political elites. Sultans set up charitable trusts (auqaf) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free land (inam).
The Chishtis preferred to use donations on immediate needs — food, clothes, sama’ — rather than accumulate wealth. This enhanced the moral authority of the shaikhs, attracting people from all walks of life.
Kings required legitimation from the sufis. When the Delhi Sultanate was set up, the Turks resisted the ulama’s insistence on imposing shari’a as state law (since most subjects were non-Muslim). So they sought out the sufis — who derived authority directly from God.
It was believed that the auliya (wali/saints) could intercede with God — this explains why kings often wanted their tombs near sufi shrines.
There were instances of conflict too — both Sultans and Shaikh expected prostration and kissing of feet. Nizamuddin Auliya was addressed as sultan-ul-mashaikh (Sultan among shaikhs) by his disciples.
Other sufi orders — Suhrawardi (under Delhi Sultans) and Naqshbandi (under Mughals) — also associated with the state, but their modes differed from the Chishtis. Some accepted courtly offices.

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9. New Devotional Paths — Kabir, Baba Guru Nanak and Mirabai

🧵 Kabir (c. 14th–15th centuries)

One of the most outstanding poet-saints to emerge in this period. Historians reconstruct his life through compositions attributed to him and later hagiographies.
Verses attributed to Kabir survive in three distinct but overlapping traditions:
→ Kabir Bijak — preserved by the Kabirpanth in Varanasi/UP
→ Kabir Granthavali — associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan
→ Adi Granth Sahib — many of his compositions included here
His poems survive in several languages and dialects. Some are in the sant bhasha (language of nirguna poets). Others, known as ulatbansi (upside-down sayings), use inverted everyday meanings to hint at the difficulty of capturing Ultimate Reality in words — e.g., “the lotus which blooms without flower” or “fire raging in the ocean.”
Kabir drew on a remarkable range of traditions to describe Ultimate Reality:
→ Islamic terms: Allah, Khuda, Hazrat, Pir
→ Vedantic terms: alakh (unseen), nirakar (formless), Brahman, Atman
→ Yogic terms: shabda (sound), shunya (emptiness)
Some poems use Islamic monotheism and iconoclasm to attack Hindu polytheism and idol worship. Others use the sufi concept of zikr and ishq (love) to express the Hindu practice of nam-simaran (remembrance of God’s name).
Later debates about whether Kabir was Hindu or Muslim by birth — Vaishnava hagiographies suggested he was born a Hindu (Kabirdas) but raised by a poor Muslim weaver family (julahas, recent converts to Islam) and initiated into bhakti by a guru, perhaps Ramananda. However, Kabir’s verses mention guru and satguru but never name a specific preceptor.

📜 Source 10 — Kabir

The One Lord

“Tell me, brother, how can there be No one lord of the world but two? Who led you so astray? God is called by many names: Names like Allah, Ram, Karim, Keshav, Hari, and Hazrat. Gold may be shaped into rings and bangles. Isn’t it gold all the same? Distinctions are only words we invent… Neither can find the only Ram. One kills the goat, the other cows. They waste their lives in disputation.”

🙏 Baba Guru Nanak (1469–1539)

Born in a Hindu merchant family in Nankana Sahib (near the river Ravi) in the predominantly Muslim Punjab. Trained as an accountant; studied Persian. Married young but spent most of his time among sufis and bhaktas. Travelled widely.
Advocated a form of nirguna bhakti. Firmly repudiated external practices of both Hindus and Muslims — rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities and the scriptures of both religions.
For him, the Absolute or “rab” had no gender or form. Proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine — remembering and repeating the Divine Name.
Expressed ideas through hymns called “shabad” in Punjabi, singing them in various ragas while his attendant Mardana played the rabab.
Organised his followers into a community. Set up rules for congregational worship (sangat). Appointed his disciple Angad as successor (guru) — this practice of appointing successors continued for nearly 200 years.
He did not intend to establish a new religion, but after his death his followers consolidated their own practices and distinguished themselves from both Hindus and Muslims.
The fifth preceptor, Guru Arjan, compiled the hymns of Baba Guru Nanak and his four successors, along with compositions of religious poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas and Kabir, into the Adi Granth Sahib. These hymns, called gurbani, are composed in various languages.
The tenth preceptor, Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and the scripture became the Guru Granth Sahib. He also laid the foundation of the Khalsa Panth (army of the pure) and defined its five symbols: uncut hair, a dagger, a pair of shorts, a comb, and a steel bangle.

💜 Mirabai (c. 15th–16th centuries)

Perhaps the best-known woman poet within the bhakti tradition. Biographies reconstructed primarily from bhajans attributed to her, transmitted orally for centuries.
According to tradition, she was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar, married against her wishes to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar, Rajasthan.
She defied her husband and did not submit to the traditional role of wife and mother — recognising Krishna (avatar of Vishnu) as her lover. Her in-laws tried to poison her; she escaped from the palace to live as a wandering saint.
According to some traditions, her preceptor was Raidas (Ravidas), a leather worker — this would indicate her defiance of caste norms. She reportedly donned the white robes of a widow or the saffron robe of a renouncer.
Although she did not attract a sect, she has been recognised as a source of inspiration for centuries. Her songs continue to be sung, especially by those who are poor and considered “low caste” in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

📜 Source 11 — Mirabai

Love for the Lord

“I will build a funeral pyre of sandalwood and aloe; Light it by your own hand When I am burned away to cinders; Smear this ash upon your limbs… let flame be lost in flame.”
“What can Mewar’s ruler do to me? If God is angry, all is lost, But what can the Rana do?”

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10. Reconstructing Histories of Religious Traditions

Historians draw on a wide variety of sources to reconstruct the histories of Bhakti and Sufi traditions — sculpture, architecture, hagiographies, compositions by poet-saints, and a range of texts produced in and around sufi khanqahs. Each type of text requires different skills to interpret.

📚 Four Main Types of Sufi Texts

1. Treatises / Manuals

Deal with sufi thought and practices. Example: Kashf-ul-Mahjub (Unveiling of the Veiled) by Ali bin Usman Hujwiri (d. c. 1071) — explains the meaning of tasawwuf. Hujwiri is revered as Data Ganj Bakhsh (Giver who bestows treasures); his mausoleum in Lahore is called Data Darbar.

2. Malfuzat

Literally “uttered” — recorded conversations of sufi saints. Key example: Fawa’id-al-Fu’ad — conversations of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, compiled by Amir Hasan Sijzi Dehlavi (a noted Persian poet). Had obvious didactic purposes.

3. Maktubat

Literally “written” — collections of letters written by sufi masters to disciples and associates. Tell us about the shaikh’s religious experience and life conditions of recipients. Key example: Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani of Naqshbandi Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1624), whose ideology is contrasted with Akbar’s liberal views.

4. Tazkiras

Literally “to mention and memorialise” — biographical accounts of saints. First sufi tazkira in India: Siyar-ul-Auliya (14th century) by Mir Khwurd Kirmani — dealt mainly with Chishti saints. Most famous: Akhbar-ul-Akhyar by Abdul Haqq Muhaddis Dehlavi (d. 1642). Often glorify spiritual genealogies; sometimes implausible, but valuable for historians.

📌 The Challenge for Historians

Religious traditions like Bhakti and Sufism continue to flourish today. This allows historians to compare contemporary practices with those described in texts or shown in old paintings and trace changes. However, since these are part of peoples’ lived beliefs, there is often resistance to the idea that these traditions may have changed over time. The challenge for historians is to undertake such investigations with sensitivity, while recognising that religious traditions, like other traditions, are dynamic and change over time.

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11. Mind Map — Chapter 6 at a Glance

🗺️ Mind Map — Bhakti-Sufi Traditions

Chapter 6 — Bhakti-Sufi Traditions

🎶 Alvars & NayanarsTamil Nadu · 6th century
Nalayira Divyaprabandham
Tevaram

⚡ LingayatsKarnataka · 12th century
Basavanna · Vachanas
Anti-caste · Bury dead

🌙 SufismKhanqah · Silsila
Dargah · Ziyarat
Chishtis most influential

🧵 KabirNirguna bhakti
Kabir Bijak · Bijak
Unity of God

🙏 Baba Guru Nanak1469–1539 · Punjab
Shabad · Sangat
Guru Granth Sahib

💜 MirabaiRajput princess
Krishna devotee
Challenged patriarchy

🏛️ IntegrationLocal deities → Puranas
Jagannatha example
Tantric practices

📜 SourcesMalfuzat · Maktubat
Tazkiras · Hagiographies
Poet-saint compositions

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12. Timeline — Major Religious Teachers in the Subcontinent

Period	Major Teachers and Locations
c. 500–800 CE	Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti — Tamil Nadu
c. 800–900 CE	Nammalvar, Manikkavachakar, Andal, Tondaradippodi — Tamil Nadu
c. 1000–1100 CE	Al Hujwiri (Data Ganj Bakhsh) — Punjab; Ramanujacharya — Tamil Nadu
c. 1100–1200 CE	Basavanna — Karnataka
c. 1200–1300 CE	Jnanadeva, Muktabai — Maharashtra; Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti — Rajasthan; Baba Farid, Bahauddin Zakariyya — Punjab; Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki — Delhi
c. 1300–1400 CE	Lal Ded — Kashmir; Nizamuddin Auliya — Delhi; Ramananda — UP; Chokhamela — Maharashtra
c. 1400–1500 CE	Kabir, Raidas, Surdas — UP; Baba Guru Nanak — Punjab; Vallabhacharya — Gujarat; Gesu Daraz — Gulbarga; Shankaradeva — Assam; Tukaram — Maharashtra
c. 1500–1600 CE	Sri Chaitanya — Bengal; Mirabai — Rajasthan; Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Tulsidas — UP
c. 1600–1700 CE	Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi — Haryana; Miyan Mir — Punjab

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13. Summary — Quick Revision

Two processes shaped religion in this period: (1) Brahmanas disseminating ideas through Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit; (2) Brahmanas incorporating local traditions. This created a dialogue between “great” and “little” traditions.

The Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) led early bhakti movements from the sixth century CE in Tamil Nadu. Their compositions — Nalayira Divyaprabandham and Tevaram — were described as equal to the Vedas.

Women saints like Andal and Karaikkal Ammaiyar challenged patriarchal norms. Bhaktas came from diverse backgrounds — Brahmanas to “untouchables” — suggesting a challenge to caste hierarchy.

The Lingayat/Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka was led by Basavanna (12th century). Key beliefs: union with Shiva at death, no cremation (ceremonial burial), challenged caste and pollution, supported widow remarriage and post-puberty marriage.

Sufism emerged as a protest against the materialism of the Caliphate. The Chishti silsila was most influential in India — known for austerity, open kitchens, adoption of local languages (Hindavi), music (sama’/qawwali) and ziyarat.

Key Sufi institutions: khanqah (hospice), silsila (spiritual lineage), dargah (tomb-shrine), urs (death anniversary pilgrimage), wali (friend of God). The Sultans sought sufi legitimacy since they could not impose shari’a on a non-Muslim majority.

Kabir (14th–15th c.) practised nirguna bhakti. His verses appear in the Kabir Bijak, Kabir Granthavali and Adi Granth Sahib. He drew on Islamic, Vedantic and yogic terms; used ulatbansi (upside-down sayings) to express Ultimate Reality.

Baba Guru Nanak (1469–1539) rejected external practices of both Hindus and Muslims. Expressed ideas through “shabad” (hymns). The Adi Granth Sahib was compiled by Guru Arjan (5th preceptor). Guru Gobind Singh (10th) founded the Khalsa Panth.

Mirabai (15th–16th c.) — Rajput princess who recognised Krishna as her lord. Defied her husband and in-laws. Her preceptor according to tradition was Raidas (a leather worker). Her songs continue to be sung, especially by the poor and “low caste.”

Sources for sufi history: Malfuzat (recorded conversations), Maktubat (letters), Tazkiras (biographical accounts), and sufi treatises. The challenge for historians: religious traditions are dynamic and change over time, even though devotees often resist this idea.

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14. Important Terms to Remember

Saguna Bhakti: Devotion to God with attributes and form — worshipping specific deities like Shiva, Vishnu or Devi, often in anthropomorphic forms.
Nirguna Bhakti: Devotion to an abstract, formless God — as practised by Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak.
Hagiography: A biography of a saint written reverentially by followers or members of their religious sect. May not be literally accurate but valuable for understanding how devotees perceived their saints.
Alvars: Poet-saints of Tamil Nadu (c. 6th century CE) “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu. Their compositions were compiled in the Nalayira Divyaprabandham (Tamil Veda).
Nayanars: Poet-saints of Tamil Nadu who were devotees of Shiva. Their compositions form the Tevaram.
Nalayira Divyaprabandham: “Four Thousand Sacred Compositions” — anthology of the 12 Alvars, compiled by the tenth century. Called the Tamil Veda.
Tevaram: Collection of poems by Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar (Nayanar saints), compiled in the tenth century on the basis of the music of the songs.
Virashaiva / Lingayat: Followers of Basavanna (12th century, Karnataka). Worship Shiva as linga. Men wear a small linga in a silver case. Challenge caste and the concept of ritual pollution. Ceremonially bury their dead (no cremation).
Vachana: Literally “sayings” — short compositions in Kannada by Lingayat saints like Basavanna. Our main source for understanding the Virashaiva tradition.
Jangama: Wandering monks revered within the Lingayat tradition.
Sufism / Tasawwuf: Islamic mysticism emphasising intense devotion and love for God, following the example of the Prophet. The word is possibly derived from suf (wool), safa (purity) or suffa (platform outside the Prophet’s mosque).
Khanqah: A sufi hospice or lodge — the centre of social and spiritual life around which the sufi community was organised.
Silsila: Literally a “chain” — a sufi order representing a continuous spiritual lineage from master to disciple, ultimately back to the Prophet Muhammad. Spiritual power was transmitted through this chain.
Shaikh / Pir / Murshid: The teaching master of a khanqah — the sufi spiritual guide. Shaikh is Arabic; pir and murshid are Persian.
Murid: A sufi disciple enrolled by the shaikh.
Khalifa: A spiritual successor appointed by the shaikh to continue the silsila.
Dargah: Persian for “court” — the tomb-shrine of a sufi saint, which becomes the centre of devotion after his death.
Urs: The death anniversary of a sufi saint — literally “marriage,” signifying the union of the saint’s soul with God. A major occasion for pilgrimage (ziyarat).
Wali / Auliya: “Friend of God” — a sufi who claimed proximity to Allah, acquiring His grace (barakat) to perform miracles (karamat). Plural: auliya.
Ziyarat: Pilgrimage to the tomb of a sufi saint — an occasion for seeking the saint’s spiritual grace (barakat).
Sama’: Literally “audition” — the performance of mystical music to evoke divine ecstasy in the sufi tradition.
Qawwali: Devotional music performed at sufi shrines. Amir Khusrau gave it a unique form by introducing the qaul. Performed at the dargah of Nizamuddin Auliya and shrines across the subcontinent.
Zikr: The recitation of the Divine Names — a form of sufi devotion.
Futuh: Unasked-for charity — the basis on which the open kitchen (langar) at the Chishti khanqah was run.
Langar: The open kitchen at a khanqah, serving all who came regardless of caste, class or religion.
Be-shari’a / Ba-shari’a: Be-shari’a sufis deliberately defied Islamic law (Qalandars, Madaris etc.); ba-shari’a sufis complied with it (like the Chishtis, generally).
Malfuzat: Literally “uttered” — recorded conversations of sufi saints, compiled with the permission of the shaikhs. An important source for Chishti history. Example: Fawa’id-al-Fu’ad (conversations of Nizamuddin Auliya).
Maktubat: Literally “written” — collections of letters written by sufi masters. Example: Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
Tazkira: Literally “to mention and memorialise” — biographical accounts of sufi saints. Example: Siyar-ul-Auliya (first sufi tazkira in India) and Akhbar-ul-Akhyar.
Ulatbansi: Literally “upside-down sayings” — a form of Kabir’s poetry in which everyday meanings are inverted to hint at the difficulty of capturing Ultimate Reality in words.
Sant Bhasha: The special language used by nirguna poets like Kabir.
Shabad: Hymns composed by Baba Guru Nanak in Punjabi, expressing his ideas about the Divine.
Sangat: Congregational worship set up by Baba Guru Nanak, involving collective recitation.
Gurbani: The hymns of the Sikh Gurus, composed in various languages and compiled in the Adi Granth Sahib / Guru Granth Sahib.
Khalsa Panth: The “army of the pure” — established by Guru Gobind Singh (10th Sikh preceptor). Defined by five symbols: uncut hair, dagger, shorts, comb and steel bangle.