Contemporary South Asia
1. Chapter Overview
2. What is South Asia?
🏛️ Political Systems in the Region
🇮🇳 India
- Successful democracy since independence (1947)
- Has remained a democracy throughout its existence — never had a military coup
🇱🇰 Sri Lanka
- Successful democracy since independence (1948)
- Faced ethnic conflict (Sinhala vs Tamil) but maintained democratic system
🇵🇰 Pakistan
- Experienced alternating civilian and military rule
- Military coup in 1999; civilian government since 2008
🇧🇩 Bangladesh
- Experienced both civilian and military rulers
- Remained a democracy in the post-Cold War period
- Multi-party elections since 1991
🇳🇵 Nepal
- Constitutional monarchy → monarchy abolished 2008
- Became a democratic republic; new constitution adopted 2015
🇧🇹 Bhutan & 🇲🇻 Maldives
- Bhutan: became constitutional monarchy (2008) — multi-party democracy
- Maldives: Sultanate until 1968 → republic → multi-party system from 2005
3. Military and Democracy in Pakistan
📜 Timeline of Pakistani Politics
🔍 Why Has Democracy Struggled in Pakistan?
- Social dominance of the military, clergy, and landowning aristocracy — these groups frequently overthrow elected governments.
- Conflict with India has made pro-military groups more powerful, justifying military rule on national security grounds.
- Lack of genuine international support for democratic rule — the US and West have historically supported the military for their own strategic interests (fear of Islamic terrorism; Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal).
- Despite all this, Pakistan has a strong pro-democracy sentiment, a courageous press, and a strong human rights movement.
4. Democracy in Bangladesh and Nepal
🇧🇩 Bangladesh
- Bangladesh was part of Pakistan (1947–1971). People of East Pakistan resented West Pakistani domination and the imposition of Urdu.
- Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman led the struggle for autonomy. The Awami League won all East Pakistan seats in the 1970 elections but was denied power by the West Pakistani-dominated government.
- Pakistani army suppressed the Bengali movement; thousands were killed; massive refugee crisis in India. India supported Bangladesh financially and militarily.
- December 1971: Indo-Pak war → Pakistani forces surrender → Bangladesh becomes independent.
- Bangladesh adopted a constitution (secularism, democracy, socialism). But in 1975, Sheikh Mujib shifted to presidential rule and abolished all parties except Awami League. He was assassinated in August 1975.
- Military rulers Ziaur Rahman and Lt Gen H. M. Ershad followed. Mass protests forced Ershad to step down in 1990.
- Since 1991, representative democracy based on multi-party elections has functioned in Bangladesh.
🇳🇵 Nepal
- Nepal was a Hindu kingdom, then a constitutional monarchy. Kings maintained control with the army’s help, restricting democracy.
- King accepted demand for a new democratic constitution in 1990 after a strong pro-democracy movement. However, democratic governments had a short and troubled career.
- The Maoists spread armed influence across Nepal in the 1990s, creating a triangular conflict between monarchist forces, democrats, and Maoists.
- In 2002, the king dissolved parliament and dismissed the government.
- April 2006: Massive nationwide pro-democracy protests led by the Seven Party Alliance (SPA), Maoists, and social activists forced the king to restore the House of Representatives.
- In 2008, Nepal became a democratic republic after abolishing the monarchy. A new constitution was adopted in 2015.
5. Ethnic Conflict and Democracy in Sri Lanka
🔥 The Ethnic Conflict
- Post-independence politics was dominated by Sinhala nationalist forces who were hostile to Tamil migrants from India.
- Sinhala nationalists believed Sri Lanka belonged to the Sinhala people alone and refused concessions to Tamils — leading to militant Tamil nationalism.
- From 1983, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) fought an armed struggle demanding a separate state — ‘Tamil Eelam’ — in northeastern Sri Lanka.
🇮🇳 India’s Involvement
- India signed an accord with Sri Lanka in 1987 and sent troops (Indian Peace Keeping Force — IPKF) to stabilise the situation.
- The Indian Army eventually got into conflict with the LTTE. Sri Lankans resented Indian interference. The IPKF withdrew in 1989 without achieving its objective.
- India now prefers a policy of disengagement from Sri Lanka’s internal troubles. India signed a Free Trade Agreement with Sri Lanka, strengthening ties.
🕊️ Resolution
- International actors (Scandinavian countries — Norway, Iceland) tried to bring the parties to negotiations.
- The armed conflict ended in 2009 when the LTTE was militarily defeated.
- Despite decades of conflict, Sri Lanka maintained a democratic political system, had the highest per capita GDP in the region, and was the first South Asian country to liberalise its economy.
6. India–Pakistan Conflicts
⚔️ Key Conflicts and Issues
🔑 Other Contentious Issues
- Siachen glacier — strategic control dispute.
- Pakistan alleged to support Kashmiri militants with arms, training, and money. Also alleged to have supported pro-Khalistani militants (1985–95).
- Pakistan’s ISI alleged to be involved in anti-India activities in the northeast through Bangladesh and Nepal.
- Pakistan accuses Indian agencies of fomenting trouble in Sindh and Balochistan.
- Dispute over Sir Creek in the Rann of Kutch — minor in itself but has implications for sea resource control.
🕊️ Peace Efforts
- Both countries have agreed to confidence building measures (CBMs) to reduce the risk of war.
- Bus routes opened; trade increased; visas were more easily granted in earlier periods.
- Social activists and prominent personalities have worked to create an atmosphere of friendship between ordinary citizens.
7. India and Its Other Neighbours
🇧🇩 India–Bangladesh
Disputes: River water sharing (Ganga, Brahmaputra); illegal immigration; anti-Indian groups operating from Bangladesh; Bangladesh’s refusal to allow Indian troop movement to the northeast; natural gas export refusal.
Cooperation: Economic relations improved; Bangladesh part of India’s Act East policy; cooperation on disaster management and environment; enclave exchange (2015). Farakka Treaty on Ganga waters (1996).
🇳🇵 India–Nepal
Very special relationship — citizens of both countries can travel and work without visas or passports. However, Nepal has complained of Indian interference in internal affairs, unfair river water policies, and blocking sea access.
India worries about Nepal’s warm ties with China and the spread of Maoist movement. Despite tensions, trade, scientific cooperation, and electricity generation keep ties stable.
🇱🇰 India–Sri Lanka
Relations largely troubled by the ethnic Tamil conflict. After the IPKF experience (1987–89), India prefers disengagement from Sri Lanka’s internal affairs.
India signed a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with Sri Lanka (1998). India’s help in post-tsunami reconstruction brought the two countries closer.
🇧🇹 India–Bhutan & 🇲🇻 Maldives
Bhutan: Very special relationship; no major conflicts. Bhutanese monarch’s efforts to remove northeastern Indian militants from Bhutanese territory have helped India. India is involved in big hydroelectric projects in Bhutan and is its biggest development aid source.
Maldives: Warm and cordial ties. India reacted quickly in November 1988 when Tamil mercenaries attacked the Maldives. India contributes to the island’s economy, tourism, and fisheries.
8. SAARC and Regional Cooperation
🏛️ SAARC — Key Facts
- Founded: December 1985 — SAARC Charter signed in Dhaka
- Members: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka + Afghanistan (2007)
- SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Agreement) signed at 12th SAARC Summit, Islamabad, 2004
- SAFTA came into effect on 1 January 2006
- Aims to lower trade tariffs and create a free trade zone
⚠️ Why SAARC Has Been Limited
- Persisting political differences — especially India–Pakistan tensions — have blocked progress
- Smaller nations fear SAFTA will allow India to ‘invade’ their markets
- India already has bilateral agreements with Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka — some question the need for SAARC
- No equivalent of the ASEAN Way — member states do not always trust each other’s motives
🌍 External Powers in South Asia
- China: Strategic partnership with Pakistan remains a major irritant for India, despite improving Sino-Indian economic ties since 1991.
- United States: Rapidly increased involvement in South Asia post-Cold War. The US has good relations with both India and Pakistan and increasingly acts as a moderator in India–Pakistan relations. South Asian diaspora in the US and the region’s markets give America a strategic stake in regional stability.
- Whether South Asia remains a conflict-prone zone or evolves into a cooperative regional bloc will ultimately depend on the people and governments of the region more than any outside power.
9. Mind Map — Chapter 3 at a Glance
Himalayan & Ocean
boundaries
Ayub·Yahya·Zia
Musharraf · 2008
Sheikh Mujib
Demo. since 1991
Maoists · SPA
2008 republic
LTTE 1983–2009
IPKF 1987–89
1965 · 1971 · 1999
Nuclear 1998
Bhutan · Maldives
Sri Lanka FTA
SAFTA 2004/2006
Af. joined 2007
10. Summary — Quick Revision
South Asia includes seven countries — Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The region stands for diversity but constitutes one geopolitical space. India and Sri Lanka have been continuous democracies; Pakistan and Bangladesh have had alternating civilian and military rule.
Pakistan has repeatedly seen military coups — under Ayub Khan, Yahya Khan, Zia-ul-Haq, and Pervez Musharraf. Factors: social dominance of military and clergy, India–Pakistan conflict strengthening pro-military groups, and lack of genuine international support for democracy. Civilian rule restored since 2008.
Bangladesh was created in December 1971 after India supported East Pakistan’s independence struggle against West Pakistani domination. Sheikh Mujib was assassinated in 1975; military rulers followed. Mass protests ended General Ershad’s rule in 1990 and multi-party democracy has functioned since 1991.
Nepal moved from constitutional monarchy through a triangular conflict (monarchists, democrats, Maoists) to a democratic republic. The king dissolved parliament in 2002; massive pro-democracy protests in 2006 (led by Seven Party Alliance) restored the House of Representatives. Monarchy abolished 2008; new constitution 2015.
Sri Lanka maintained democracy despite the Tamil–Sinhala ethnic conflict. The LTTE fought from 1983 for a separate Tamil Eelam. India sent the IPKF in 1987 but withdrew in 1989 without success. The LTTE was defeated by the Sri Lankan army in 2009. Sri Lanka had the region’s highest per capita GDP throughout.
India–Pakistan conflict centres on Kashmir (wars in 1947–48, 1965, 1971), the Siachen glacier, arms race, and terrorism. Both became nuclear powers in 1998. The Kargil conflict (1999) and Agra Summit (2001) showed unresolved tensions. The Indus Waters Treaty (1960), mediated by the World Bank, has survived all wars.
India’s relations with its other neighbours are mixed. With Bangladesh — river water disputes, illegal immigration, but growing economic ties and Act East cooperation. With Nepal — visa-free travel but disputes over India’s perceived interference. With Sri Lanka — post-IPKF disengagement, FTA (1998). With Bhutan and Maldives — warm and cooperative ties.
SAARC was established in 1985. Its major economic initiative is SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Agreement, signed 2004, effective 2006). SAARC has had limited success due to India–Pakistan tensions. Smaller nations fear Indian economic dominance. External powers — China (strategic partner of Pakistan) and the US (moderator in India–Pakistan relations) — also influence South Asian politics.
11. Important Terms to Remember
- Line of Control (LoC): The de facto boundary dividing Kashmir between India and Pakistan, established after the 1947–48 war. Pakistan controls the western part (Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir) and India controls Jammu and Kashmir. The line was formalised by the Simla Agreement (1972).
- LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam): The Sri Lankan Tamil militant organisation that from 1983 fought an armed insurgency demanding a separate homeland (‘Tamil Eelam’) in northeastern Sri Lanka. Defeated militarily by the Sri Lankan armed forces in 2009.
- IPKF (Indian Peace Keeping Force): Indian troops sent to Sri Lanka in 1987 after India signed an accord with Sri Lanka to stabilise Sinhala–Tamil relations. The IPKF was eventually drawn into conflict with the LTTE and withdrew in 1989 without achieving its objective.
- SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation): A regional body established in December 1985 with seven members (Afghanistan joined in 2007). Its objective is to foster economic, social, and cultural cooperation among South Asian countries. Limited by India–Pakistan tensions.
- SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Agreement): Signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad in 2004, effective 1 January 2006. Aims to lower trade tariffs and create a free trade zone across South Asia.
- Indus Waters Treaty (1960): A water-sharing agreement between India and Pakistan brokered by the World Bank, allocating the rivers of the Indus basin between the two countries. Has survived all subsequent India–Pakistan wars.
- Confidence Building Measures (CBMs): Steps agreed between India and Pakistan to reduce the risk of accidental war and build mutual trust — including agreements not to attack each other’s nuclear facilities (1988), hotlines between military commanders, and people-to-people exchanges.