Chapter 4 – Primary Activities | CBSE Notes

GEOGRAPHY | CLASS XII | NCERT

Book: Fundamentals of Human Geography | Unit-III | Chapter 4

Primary Activities

⭐ Topper Level 💬 Easy Language 📌 Point-Wise 🌍 Fourth Chapter

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1. Learning Objectives

After reading these notes, you will be able to:

Understand economic activities and identify primary activities — hunting-gathering, pastoralism, agriculture, mining.

Know the types of pastoral nomadism and commercial livestock rearing.

Understand the different agricultural systems — subsistence, plantation, commercial and mixed farming.

Know farm organisation types (co-operative, collective farming) and the methods and factors of mining.

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2. Economic Activities and Primary Activities

Human activities which generate income are known as economic activities, broadly grouped into primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities. Primary activities are directly dependent on environment as they refer to utilisation of earth’s resources such as land, water, vegetation, building materials and minerals. These include hunting and gathering, pastoral activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, and mining and quarrying.

📌 Do You Know?

People engaged in primary activities are called red-collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work.

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3. Hunting and Gathering

The earliest human beings depended on their immediate environment for sustenance — (a) animals which they hunted, and (b) edible plants gathered from nearby forests. This is the oldest economic activity known.

🎯 Hunting

Primitive societies depended on wild animals; people in very cold and extremely hot climates survived on hunting.
Coastal people still catch fish, though fishing has been modernised through technology.
Many species have become extinct or endangered due to illegal hunting (poaching); early hunters used primitive tools (stones, twigs, arrows), so the number of animals killed was limited.

🌿 Gathering

Practised in regions with harsh climatic conditions by primitive societies who extract plants and animals for food, shelter and clothing. Requires small capital and very low technology; yield per person is very low with little or no surplus.
Regions: (i) High latitude zones — northern Canada, northern Eurasia, southern Chile; (ii) Low latitude zones — Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, northern fringe of Australia, interior Southeast Asia.
In modern times, some gathering has become market-oriented/commercial — bark yields quinine, tannin and cork; leaves supply beverages, drugs, cosmetics, fibres, thatch and fabrics; nuts give food and oils; tree trunks yield rubber, balata, gums and resins.
Gathering has little chance of becoming important globally since products cannot compete in the world market — synthetic products of better quality and lower price have replaced many gathered items.

📌 Do You Know?
Chicle — the part of chewing gum left after the flavour is gone — is made from the milky juice of the zapota tree.

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4. Pastoralism

Once hunting was realised as unsustainable, humans domesticated animals found in their region. Depending on geographical factors and technology, animal rearing today is practised at the subsistence or commercial level.

🚶 Nomadic Herding (Pastoral Nomadism)

A primitive subsistence activity where herders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport, moving with their livestock based on pasture/water availability. Each community occupies a well-identified territory as tradition.
Animals by region: Cattle (tropical Africa); sheep, goats, camel (Sahara & Asiatic deserts); yak, llamas (Tibet, Andes); reindeer (Arctic/sub-Arctic).
Three main regions: Core region — Atlantic shores of North Africa to Mongolia & Central China (via Arabian peninsula); second region — tundra of Eurasia; small areas in South-west Africa and Madagascar.
Transhumance: Seasonal migration from plains to mountain pastures in summer and back to plains in winter — practised by Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas in the Himalayas; tundra herders move north in summer and south in winter.
Number of pastoral nomads is decreasing due to (a) imposition of political boundaries and (b) new settlement plans by different countries.

🐄 Commercial Livestock Rearing

More organised and capital intensive than nomadic herding; associated with western cultures, practised on permanent ranches divided into fenced parcels to regulate grazing according to carrying capacity.
A specialised activity — only one type of animal reared (sheep, cattle, goats, horses); products (meat, wool, hides, skin) are processed and exported scientifically.
Organised on a scientific basis — emphasis on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health care.
Important countries: New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, United States of America. Reindeer rearing is important in northern Alaska, where Eskimos own about two-thirds of the stock.

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5. Agriculture — Subsistence Systems

Agriculture is practised under multiple combinations of physical and socio-economic conditions. Subsistence agriculture is one where the farming area consumes all, or nearly all, of the products locally grown — grouped into Primitive and Intensive subsistence agriculture.

🔥 Primitive Subsistence Agriculture (Shifting Cultivation)

📌 Slash and Burn Agriculture

Widely practised by tribes in the tropics (Africa, South/Central America, Southeast Asia). Vegetation is cleared by fire, and ashes add to soil fertility. Cultivated patches are very small, done with primitive tools (sticks, hoes). After 3–5 years the soil loses fertility and the farmer shifts to another patch. Regional names: Jhuming (North-eastern India), Milpa (Central America/Mexico), Ladang (Indonesia/Malaysia). A major problem: the jhum cycle keeps shortening due to loss of fertility across parcels.

🍚 Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

Largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia. Two types:

🍚 (i) Dominated by Wet Paddy

Dominance of rice crop; land holdings are very small due to high population density. Uses family labour, limited machinery, mostly manual labour; farm yard manure maintains fertility. High yield per unit area but low per-labour productivity.

🌾 (ii) Dominated by Crops Other Than Paddy

Where paddy isn’t practical due to relief/climate/soil — wheat, soyabean, barley, sorghum grown in northern China, Manchuria, North Korea, North Japan. In India: wheat in western Indo-Gangetic plains, millets in dry western/southern India. Similar to wet paddy type, but irrigation is often used.

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6. Commercial Agricultural Systems

Europeans, through colonisation, introduced profit-oriented, large-scale production systems such as plantation agriculture and other commercial farming types.

🍵 Plantation Agriculture

Introduced by Europeans in tropical colonies. Important crops: tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas, pineapples.
Features: Large estates, large capital investment, managerial & technical support, scientific cultivation methods, single crop specialisation, cheap labour, and good transportation linking estates to factories/markets.
Colonial history: French — cocoa & coffee (West Africa); British — tea (India, Sri Lanka), rubber (Malaysia), sugarcane & banana (West Indies); Spanish/Americans — coconut & sugarcane (Philippines); Dutch — sugarcane monopoly (Indonesia); some coffee fazendas in Brazil still European-managed.
Today, ownership of most plantations has passed to governments or nationals of the countries concerned.

🌾 Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation

📌 Key Features

Practised in interior semi-arid mid-latitude lands. Wheat is the principal crop (also corn, barley, oats, rye). Farms are very large; operations from ploughing to harvesting are fully mechanised — resulting in low yield per acre but high yield per person. Best developed in the Eurasian Steppes, Canadian & American Prairies, Pampas (Argentina), Velds (South Africa), Australian Downs, Canterbury Plains (New Zealand).

🌽 Mixed Farming

Found in highly developed regions — North-western Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia, temperate southern continents. Farms are moderate in size.
Crops: wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops; fodder crops are important, with crop rotation and intercropping maintaining soil fertility.
Equal emphasis on crop cultivation and animal husbandry (cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry provide additional income). Characterised by high capital expenditure on machinery/building, extensive chemical fertiliser/green manure use, and skilled farmers.

🥛 Dairy Farming

The most advanced and efficient milch-animal rearing, highly capital intensive (sheds, storage, milching machines); emphasis on cattle breeding, health care, veterinary services.
Highly labour intensive — rigorous feeding/milching care, no off-season. Practised near urban/industrial centres for fresh milk markets; transport, refrigeration and pasteurisation have extended storage duration.
Three main regions: North-Western Europe (largest), Canada, and South-Eastern Australia/New Zealand/Tasmania.

🍇 Mediterranean Agriculture

📌 Highly Specialised Commercial Farming

Practised in countries around the Mediterranean Sea and similar climates: Tunisia to Atlantic coast (North Africa), southern California, central Chile, south-western South Africa, south/south-western Australia. An important supplier of citrus fruits. Viticulture (grape cultivation) is a speciality — best quality wines come from this region; inferior grapes become raisins/currants; also produces olives and figs. Advantage: fruits/vegetables are grown in winters when demand is high in European/North American markets.

🌻 Market Gardening and Horticulture

Specialises in high-value crops — vegetables, fruits, flowers — solely for urban markets. Farms are small, located near good transport links to urban centres with high-income consumers.
Both labour and capital intensive: uses irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers, insecticides, greenhouses, artificial heating in colder regions.
Well developed in densely populated industrial districts of NW Europe, north-eastern USA and Mediterranean regions. Netherlands specialises in flowers (tulips) flown to major European cities.
Truck farming: Farmers specialise only in vegetables; distance from market is governed by how far a truck can travel overnight.
Factory farming: Modern development (Western Europe, North America) where livestock (especially poultry/cattle) is reared in stalls and pens on manufactured feedstuff with careful disease supervision — requires heavy capital investment and emphasises breed selection and scientific breeding.

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7. Farming Organisation

Farming organisation is affected by how farmers own their farms and government policies governing them.

🤝 Co-operative Farming

A group of farmers form a co-operative society by voluntarily pooling resources for more efficient, profitable farming; individual farms remain intact. Co-operatives help procure inputs, sell products favourably, and process quality products cheaply. Originated over a century ago; most successful in Denmark (where almost every farmer is a co-operative member), also successful in Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy.

🚜 Collective Farming (Kolkhoz)

Based on social ownership of production means and collective labour. The Kolkhoz model was introduced in the erstwhile Soviet Union to improve inefficiency and boost agricultural production for self-sufficiency. Farmers pooled land, livestock and labour, but were allowed to retain small plots for daily requirements.

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8. Mining

The discovery of minerals is reflected in stages of human development — copper age, bronze age, iron age. Ancient use was largely confined to tools, utensils and weapons. The actual development of mining began with the Industrial Revolution, and its importance is continuously increasing.

⚙️ Factors Affecting Mining Activity

Physical factors: Size, grade and the mode of occurrence of the deposits.
Economic factors: Demand for the mineral, technology available, capital for infrastructure, and labour/transport costs.

⛏️ Methods of Mining

🕳️ Surface / Open-cast Mining

Easiest and cheapest method for minerals occurring close to the surface; overhead costs (safety, equipment) are relatively low. Output is large and rapid.

🛗 Underground / Shaft Mining

Used when the ore lies deep below the surface. Vertical shafts are sunk with underground galleries radiating to reach minerals, requiring lifts, drills, haulage vehicles and ventilation systems. Risky — poisonous gases, fires, floods, cave-ins can cause fatal accidents.

📌 Global Trend
Developed economies are retreating from mining, processing and refining due to high labour costs, while developing countries with large labour forces are becoming more important in this sector. Several countries of Africa and a few in South America and Asia earn over 50% of their income from minerals alone.

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Summary — Quick Revision

Primary Activities: Directly dependent on environment — hunting-gathering, pastoral activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, mining/quarrying. Workers are “red-collar” workers.

Hunting & Gathering: Oldest economic activity. Hunting in extreme climates; gathering in high/low latitude zones — low technology, low yield, becoming commercial for some plant products.

Pastoralism: Nomadic herding (subsistence, transhumance) vs Commercial livestock rearing (organised, capital intensive, permanent ranches, single-species specialisation).

Subsistence Agriculture: Primitive (shifting cultivation/slash-and-burn — Jhuming, Milpa, Ladang) vs Intensive (wet paddy vs other crops) — monsoon Asia.

Commercial Agriculture: Plantation (single-crop, tropical, colonial origin), Extensive grain (wheat, mechanised, mid-latitudes), Mixed farming (crops + livestock).

Specialised Farming: Dairy (capital+labour intensive, near cities), Mediterranean (viticulture, citrus, olives), Market gardening/Truck farming/Factory farming (high-value crops for urban markets).

Farm Organisation: Co-operative farming (voluntary pooling, individual farms intact — Denmark) vs Collective farming/Kolkhoz (social ownership, Soviet Union model).

Mining: Started with Industrial Revolution. Factors — physical (deposit size/grade) & economic (demand, tech, capital). Methods — surface/open-cast (cheap, shallow) vs underground/shaft (deep, risky).

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Important Terms to Remember

Economic Activities: Human activities which generate income — grouped into primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
Primary Activities: Activities directly dependent on environment for utilisation of earth’s resources.
Pastoral Nomadism: Primitive subsistence activity where herders move with livestock relying on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport.
Transhumance: Seasonal migration between plain and mountain pastures.
Commercial Livestock Rearing: Organised, capital-intensive, specialised rearing of a single animal type on permanent ranches.
Shifting Cultivation: Primitive subsistence agriculture where land is cleared by fire and cultivated for a few years before shifting; also called slash and burn agriculture (Jhuming, Milpa, Ladang).
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: Small landholdings with high yield per unit area but low per-labour productivity, found in densely populated monsoon Asia.
Plantation Agriculture: Large-estate, single-crop, capital-intensive commercial farming introduced by Europeans in tropical colonies.
Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation: Large, mechanised wheat farms in semi-arid mid-latitudes with low yield per acre but high yield per person.
Mixed Farming: Combination of crop cultivation and animal husbandry with equal emphasis on both.
Viticulture: Grape cultivation, a speciality of the Mediterranean region.
Truck Farming: Vegetable-specialised farming where distance from market depends on overnight truck travel.
Factory Farming: Intensive rearing of livestock (especially poultry) in stalls/pens on manufactured feedstuff.
Co-operative Farming: Farmers voluntarily pool resources through a co-operative society while retaining individual farm ownership.
Kolkhoz (Collective Farming): Soviet Union model based on social ownership of production means and collective labour.
Open-cast (Surface) Mining: Cheapest, easiest mining method for minerals close to the surface.
Shaft (Underground) Mining: Mining method using vertical shafts and galleries for deep-lying ore deposits.