Book: India — People and Economy | Unit-III | Chapter 4
Water Resources
1. Learning Objectives
After reading these notes, you will be able to:
1
Understand India’s surface and groundwater resources and their distribution.2
Know sectoral water demand & utilisation, especially for irrigation.3
Identify emerging water problems — pollution and quality deterioration.4
Learn methods of water conservation and management.2. Water Resources of India
Water is a cyclic resource, abundant globally — about 71% of Earth’s surface is water, but freshwater is only ~3% of the total, and only a small share of that is usable by humans.
2.45%
India’s Share of World Surface Area
4%
Share of World’s Water Resources
17%+
Share of World’s Population
1,122 km³
Total Utilisable Water Resource
🌊 Surface Water Resources
- Four major sources: rivers, lakes, ponds and tanks — India has about 10,360 rivers/tributaries longer than 1.6 km.
- Mean annual flow in all river basins ≈ 1,869 cubic km, but due to topographical/hydrological constraints only ~690 cubic km (32%) can be utilised.
- Ganga, Brahmaputra & Barak basins cover only ~1/3rd of total area but hold 60% of surface water resources due to high catchment rainfall.
- South Indian rivers (Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri) are largely harnessed; Brahmaputra & Ganga basins are yet to be fully harnessed.
🕳️ Groundwater Resources
- Total replenishable groundwater ≈ 432 cubic km.
- High utilisation: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu. Low utilisation: Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala. Moderate: Gujarat, U.P., Bihar, Tripura, Maharashtra.
📌 Lagoons & Backwaters
India’s indented coastline has formed lagoons and lakes — vast in Kerala, Odisha, West Bengal. Water is generally brackish but used for fishing and irrigating paddy, coconut, etc.3. Water Demand and Utilisation
India has traditionally been an agrarian economy — about two-thirds of its population depends on agriculture, so irrigation development has been a high priority in Five Year Plans, via multipurpose river valley projects (Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal).
| Sector | Surface Water Use | Groundwater Use |
|---|---|---|
| Agriculture | 89% | 92% |
| Domestic | 9% | Lower than surface share |
| Industry | 2% | 5% |
💦 Demand for Irrigation
- Needed due to spatio-temporal rainfall variability — N-W India & Deccan plateau are drought-prone; winter/summer are largely dry.
- Even high-rainfall states (West Bengal, Bihar) face dry spells from monsoon breaks; crops like rice, sugarcane, jute need heavy irrigation.
- Irrigated land has higher productivity; HYV crops need regular moisture — key reason Green Revolution succeeded in Punjab, Haryana, W. U.P.
- In Punjab, Haryana & W. U.P., >85% of net sown area is irrigated; 76.1% (Punjab) and 51.3% (Haryana) of net irrigated area comes from wells/tubewells — causing groundwater depletion.
📌 Do You Know?
Over-withdrawal of groundwater has increased fluoride concentration in Rajasthan & Maharashtra, and arsenic concentration in parts of West Bengal & Bihar.📌 Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY, 2015-16)
Aims to ensure protective irrigation access for all farms — key goals: Har Khet Ko Pani (water to every field), Per Drop More Crop (efficient water use), and sustainable water conservation.4. Emerging Water Problems
Per capita water availability is dwindling due to population growth, while pollution from industrial, agricultural and domestic effluents is further limiting usable water.
- Deterioration of Water Quality: Toxic substances (micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial waste) entering water bodies degrade quality and harm aquatic systems; pollutants may seep into groundwater.
- Most Polluted River: The Yamuna, between Delhi and Etawah. Other severely polluted: Sabarmati (Ahmedabad), Gomti (Lucknow), Kali, Adyar, Cooum, Vaigai (Madurai), Musi (Hyderabad), Ganga (Kanpur & Varanasi).
- CPCB monitors water quality at 507 stations — organic & bacterial contamination is the main pollution source in rivers.
- Legislation: Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, Environment Protection Act 1986, Water Cess Act 1977 — implementation has been weak; 251 polluting industries were found along rivers/lakes in 1997.
5. Water Conservation and Management
- Recycle & Reuse: Reclaimed wastewater for industrial cooling/firefighting; household water reused for gardening — currently practised on a limited scale in India.
- Watershed Management: Efficient management/conservation of surface & groundwater — prevention of runoff, storage & recharge via percolation tanks, recharge wells; success depends on community participation.
- Rainwater Harvesting: Low-cost, eco-friendly method to capture rain and recharge aquifers — improves groundwater table & quality, prevents soil erosion/flooding. Traditional structures: Kund/Tanka (Rajasthan).
🏞️ Notable Programmes
| Programme | Focus |
|---|---|
| Haryali | Central watershed development project executed by Gram Panchayats for drinking water, irrigation, fisheries, afforestation. |
| Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal) | Implemented in 8,220 water-stressed Gram Panchayats across 7 states — Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, M.P., Maharashtra, Rajasthan, U.P. |
| Neeru-Meeru (A.P.) & Arvary Pani Sansad (Alwar, Rajasthan) | Community water-harvesting structures — percolation tanks, johad (dug ponds), check dams. |
| Jal Kranti Abhiyan (2015-16) | Creates “Jal Gram” in water-stressed villages, pollution abatement, arsenic-free wells, mass awareness campaigns. |
📌 Case Study — Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar (Maharashtra)
Transformed from poverty/illicit liquor trade (1975) through watershed development led by a retired army officer — percolation tanks, voluntary labour, banning open grazing & water-intensive crops (sugarcane), promoting pulses/oilseeds. Result: adequate water, flourishing agriculture, and social reforms (dowry/caste discrimination banned, Nyay Panchayats formed).📌 National Water Policy 2012 — Key Points
Emphasises a national water framework law, treats water (after basic needs) as an economic good, promotes climate-adaptive water infrastructure, water audits/footprints, and community-managed water projects.Summary — Quick Revision
1
Availability: Freshwater ~3% of total water; India = 1,122 cubic km utilisable water resource.
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Surface Water: Ganga-Brahmaputra-Barak hold 60% despite covering 1/3rd of area.
3
Groundwater: High use in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu — leading to depletion & contamination (fluoride/arsenic).
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Utilisation: Agriculture dominates — 89% surface, 92% groundwater use.
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Pollution: Yamuna is the most polluted river; CPCB monitors 507 stations.
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Conservation: Watershed management, rainwater harvesting, recycle/reuse — Haryali, Atal Jal, Jal Kranti Abhiyan.
Important Terms to Remember
- Cyclic Resource: A resource (like water) that is naturally renewed through a continuous cycle.
- Catchment Area / River Basin: The area drained by a river and its tributaries.
- Replenishable Groundwater: Groundwater that is naturally recharged over time.
- Watershed Management: Efficient management and conservation of surface & groundwater within a watershed.
- Rainwater Harvesting: Capturing and storing rainwater for use and groundwater recharge.
- Kund / Tanka: Traditional covered underground rainwater storage tanks used in Rajasthan.
- Johad: A traditional dug-out pond used for water harvesting.
- Warabandi: A system of equal distribution of canal water within a command area.