Book: India — People and Economy | Unit-III | Chapter 3
Land Resources and Agriculture
1. Learning Objectives
After reading these notes, you will be able to:
1
Know the land-use categories and land-use changes in India.2
Understand cropping seasons, types of farming and major crops of India.3
Learn the phases of agricultural development, Green Revolution and technology growth.4
Identify the key problems facing Indian agriculture.2. Land Use Categories
Land-use records are maintained by the land revenue department and add up to the reporting area — somewhat different from geographical area, which is measured by the Survey of India and stays fixed.
| Category | Meaning |
|---|---|
| (i) Forests | Area officially demarcated for forest growth — may differ from actual forest cover. |
| (ii) Barren & Wastelands | Barren hilly terrain, deserts, ravines — cannot be cultivated with current technology. |
| (iii) Non-agricultural Uses | Settlements, infrastructure (roads/canals), industries, shops. |
| (iv) Permanent Pastures & Grazing Land | Mostly owned by village Panchayat/Government — a Common Property Resource. |
| (v) Misc. Tree Crops & Groves | Orchards & fruit trees, mostly privately owned; not part of net sown area. |
| (vi) Culturable Wasteland | Land left fallow for more than 5 years; can be reclaimed for cultivation. |
| (vii) Current Fallow | Left uncultivated for one agricultural year or less, to let soil recoup fertility. |
| (viii) Fallow other than Current | Left uncultivated for 1–5 years. |
| (ix) Net Area Sown | The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested. |
3. Land-use Changes in India
Land-use is influenced by the nature of economic activities, but land itself is fixed in area. Three types of economic change affect land-use.
- (i) Size of the economy grows with population, income and technology — increasing pressure on land, bringing marginal lands into use.
- (ii) Composition of the economy changes — secondary/tertiary sectors grow faster than agriculture, shifting land from agricultural to non-agricultural uses (sharp near urban areas).
- (iii) Pressure on agricultural land persists despite agriculture’s declining GDP share — because population dependence on agriculture declines slowly, and the number of people the sector must feed keeps rising.
📈 Changes 1950–51 to 2019–20 (% of Reporting Area)
| Category | 1950-51 | 2019-20 | Trend |
|---|---|---|---|
| Forests | 17.0 | 23.4 | ▲ Increase |
| Non-agricultural use | 3.2 | 9.1 | ▲ Highest rate of increase |
| Barren & wasteland | 13.4 | 5.4 | ▼ Decline |
| Permanent pasture/grazing | 2.3 | 3.4 | ▲ Increase |
| Misc. tree crops/groves | 6.9 | 1.0 | ▼ Decline |
| Culturable wasteland | 8.0 | 3.9 | ▼ Decline |
| Fallow other than current | 6.1 | 3.7 | ▼ Decline |
| Current fallow | 3.7 | 4.5 | ▲ Increase |
| Net area sown | 41.7 | 45.6 | ▲ Increase |
📌 Do You Know?
The rise in the forest category reflects an increase in the demarcated area, not necessarily actual forest cover. Non-agricultural use is rising fastest, eating into wastelands and agricultural land.4. Common Property Resources & Agricultural Land Use
📌 Common Property Resources (CPRs)
Land owned by the state for community use — community forests, pasture lands, village water bodies — where every member has right of access without ownership. Vital for landless/marginal farmers (fodder, fuel) and especially women, who spend long hours collecting fuel/fodder.🌱 Why Land Matters for Agriculture
- Agriculture is a purely land-based activity — lack of land access directly correlates with rural poverty.
- Quality of land directly affects agricultural productivity, unlike other activities.
- Land ownership has social value — security for credit, protection against hazards, and social status.
📐 Table 3.1 — Composition of Total Cultivable Land
| Category | % of Reporting Area 1950-51 | 2019-20 |
|---|---|---|
| Culturable Wasteland | 8.0 | 3.9 |
| Fallow other than Current | 6.1 | 3.7 |
| Current Fallow | 3.7 | 4.5 |
| Net Area Sown | 41.7 | 45.6 |
| Total Cultivable Land | 59.5 | 57.7 |
5. Cropping Seasons & Types of Farming
📌 Cropping Intensity (CI)
CI (%) = (Gross Cropped Area ÷ Net Sown Area) × 100 — a high CI is desirable for a land-scarce, labour-abundant country like India, as it raises output and demand for labour.🗓️ Table 3.2 — Cropping Seasons in India
| Season | Northern States | Southern States |
|---|---|---|
| Kharif (June–Sept) | Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Jowar, Tur | Rice, Maize, Ragi, Jowar, Groundnut |
| Rabi (Oct–March) | Wheat, Gram, Rapeseed & Mustard, Barley | Rice, Maize, Ragi, Groundnut, Jowar |
| Zaid (April–June) | Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder | Rice, Vegetables, Fodder |
📌 Do You Know?
In South India, high year-round temperatures allow the same crop to be grown thrice a year if soil moisture permits — the kharif/rabi/zaid distinction doesn’t apply there.💧 Types of Farming
🚰 Irrigated Farming
Protective irrigation: supplements rainfall over a max. area. Productive irrigation: provides high water input for high productivity.
🌧️ Rainfed (Barani) Farming
Dryland (rainfall <75 cm): hardy crops — ragi, bajra, moong, gram, guar; soil moisture conservation practised. Wetland: rainfall exceeds requirement; rice, jute, sugarcane, aquaculture; flood/erosion risk.
6. Foodgrains — Cereals
Foodgrains occupy about two-thirds of total cropped area — classified as cereals (~54% of cropped area) and pulses. India ranks 3rd in cereal production globally (after China & USA), producing fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi).
| Crop | Season & Conditions | Leading States |
|---|---|---|
| Rice | Tropical, humid; kharif in N/NW; 2-3 crops/yr in South & W. Bengal (aus, aman, boro). India = 22.07% of world production, ranked 2nd. | West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab |
| Wheat | Temperate zone; rabi crop, mostly irrigated. 85% of area in Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau, Himalayas. India = 12.8% of world production. | U.P., M.P., Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan |
| Jowar | Semi-arid food crop of central/southern India; kharif & rabi in South, kharif/fodder in North. | Maharashtra (>50%), Karnataka, M.P., A.P., Telangana |
| Bajra | Hot, dry conditions; hardy, drought-resistant; ~5.2% of cropped area. | Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P., Haryana |
| Maize | Food + fodder crop; semi-arid, inferior soils; ~3.6% of cropped area; sown across most of India except Punjab & NE. | Karnataka, M.P., Bihar, A.P., Telangana, Rajasthan, U.P. |
📌 Do You Know?
Rice cultivation in Punjab & Haryana is not traditional — it was introduced in the 1970s after the Green Revolution, using genetically improved seeds, high fertiliser use and dry climate reducing pest susceptibility.7. Pulses, Oilseeds, Fibre & Other Crops
🫘 Pulses (~11% of Cropped Area)
Gram
Rainfed, subtropical, rabi crop (~2.8% area); displaced by wheat in Haryana/Punjab post-Green Revolution. Leading: M.P., U.P., Maharashtra, A.P., Telangana, Rajasthan.
Tur (Arhar)
Also called red gram/pigeon pea; rainfed on marginal lands (~2% area). Maharashtra contributes ~1/3rd of production.
🌻 Oilseeds (~14% of Cropped Area)
| Crop | Notes | Leading States |
|---|---|---|
| Groundnut | Rainfed kharif crop of drylands (~18.8% of world output); ~3.6% of cropped area. | Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, A.P., Karnataka, Maharashtra |
| Rapeseed & Mustard | Rabi, subtropical, frost-sensitive (rai, sarson, toria, taramira); ~2.5% of cropped area; ~2/3 irrigated. | Rajasthan, Haryana, M.P. |
| Soyabean | ~90% output from two states. | Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra |
| Sunflower | Minor crop in North (irrigated, high yield). | Karnataka, A.P., Telangana, Maharashtra |
🧵 Fibre Crops
Cotton
Tropical, kharif, semi-arid (~4.7% area); India ranks 2nd in world production. Zones: Punjab-Haryana-Rajasthan (NW), Gujarat-Maharashtra (W), A.P.-Karnataka-Tamil Nadu (S).
Jute
Cash crop of West Bengal; India = ~3/5th of world jute; ~0.5% of cropped area. West Bengal produces ~3/4th of national output.
☕ Plantation & Other Crops
| Crop | Notes | Leading States |
|---|---|---|
| Sugarcane | Tropical, mostly irrigated (~2.4% area). India = 2nd largest producer (~19.7% of world output). | Uttar Pradesh (~2/5), Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, A.P. |
| Tea | Plantation crop from hilly, well-drained, humid areas; started 1840s in Assam. India = ~21.22% of world production, ranks 2nd in exports. | Assam (~53%), West Bengal, Tamil Nadu |
| Coffee | Tropical plantation crop; India mostly grows arabica; ranks 8th globally (~3.17% of world output). | Karnataka (>2/3 production), Kerala, Tamil Nadu |
8. Agricultural Development in India
Indian agriculture was largely subsistence before Independence, with severe droughts and famines. Partition took away ~one-third of undivided India’s irrigated land to Pakistan.
- Post-Independence goals: (i) switch cash crops to food crops, (ii) intensify cropping on cultivated land, (iii) bring cultivable/fallow land under the plough.
- Production stagnated in the late 1950s → IADP & IAAP launched; mid-1960s droughts caused a food crisis, forcing foodgrain imports.
- Green Revolution (mid-1960s): HYV seeds of wheat (Mexico) & rice (Philippines) + chemical fertilisers, introduced in irrigated Punjab, Haryana, W. U.P., A.P., Gujarat — made India self-reliant in foodgrains, but caused regional disparities until it spread to Eastern/Central India post-1970s.
- 1980s: Planning Commission focused on rainfed areas; agro-climatic planning (1988) for regionally balanced development, diversification into dairy, poultry, horticulture, aquaculture.
- 1990s: Liberalisation and free-market policy influenced agricultural development.
📈 Growth of Output & Technology
15×
Rise in Fertiliser Use Since Mid-1960s
33%
Cultivated Area Under Irrigation
📌 NMSA & Farmer’s Portal
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): Promotes productive, climate-resilient, sustainable farming via schemes like PKVY and RKVY.Farmer’s Portal: A platform giving farmers information on insurance, storage, crops, seeds, pesticides, market prices and welfare schemes.
9. Problems of Indian Agriculture
- Dependence on Erratic Monsoon: Only ~33% of cultivated area is irrigated; droughts & floods (e.g., Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan in 2006, 2017) remain a twin menace.
- Low Productivity: Per hectare yields of rice, wheat, cotton, oilseeds are lower than in USA, Russia, Japan; rainfed drylands have especially low yields.
- Financial Constraints & Indebtedness: Expensive modern inputs push marginal/small farmers into debt via moneylenders — linked to farmer distress and suicides.
- Lack of Land Reforms: Unequal land distribution under British systems (Mahalwari, Ryotwari, Zamindari) persisted post-Independence due to weak political will.
- Small & Fragmented Landholdings: Rising population pressure and generational division shrink and fragment holdings, making them uneconomic.
- Lack of Commercialisation: Most small/marginal farmers grow foodgrains for self-consumption; commercialisation is limited mainly to irrigated areas.
- Vast Underemployment: Seasonal unemployment of 4-8 months in unirrigated tracts as farm operations aren’t labour-intensive year-round.
- Degradation of Cultivable Land: Alkalisation, salinisation, waterlogging in irrigated areas; soil/wind erosion in rainfed humid & semi-arid tropics.
Summary — Quick Revision
1
Land-use Categories: 9 categories — forests, wastelands, non-agricultural use, pastures, tree crops, culturable wasteland, fallows, net sown area.
2
Land-use Changes: Non-agricultural use rising fastest (1950-51 to 2019-20); forest & net sown area also up.
3
CPRs: Community-owned land — vital for landless farmers, especially women, for fodder/fuel.
4
Cropping Seasons: Kharif, Rabi, Zaid (distinct in N. India; blurred in South).
5
Farming Types: Irrigated (protective/productive) vs Rainfed (dryland/wetland).
6
Major Crops: Rice & Wheat (cereals), Gram & Tur (pulses), Groundnut & Mustard (oilseeds), Cotton & Jute (fibre), Sugarcane/Tea/Coffee (plantation).
7
Green Revolution: Mid-1960s HYV + fertiliser strategy — made India self-reliant in foodgrains.
8
Key Problems: Monsoon dependence, low productivity, indebtedness, land fragmentation, underemployment, land degradation.
Important Terms to Remember
- Reporting Area: Sum of all land-use categories as per land revenue records.
- Net Sown Area: Physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested.
- Gross Cropped Area: Total area sown, counting land sown more than once in a year multiple times.
- Cropping Intensity: (Gross Cropped Area ÷ Net Sown Area) × 100.
- Common Property Resources (CPRs): Community-owned land with shared access rights, no individual ownership.
- Kharif, Rabi, Zaid: The three cropping seasons of northern/interior India.
- Dryland Farming: Rainfed farming in areas with less than 75 cm annual rainfall.
- Wetland Farming: Rainfed farming where rainfall exceeds soil moisture needs.
- Green Revolution: The rapid rise in foodgrain output in the mid-1960s via HYV seeds, irrigation and fertilisers.
- HYV: High Yielding Varieties of seeds.
- Culturable Wasteland: Land left fallow for more than 5 years, reclaimable for cultivation.